Early Iron Age iron-smelting debris from Rwanda and Burundi, East Africa
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Published
Nov 12, 2021
Abstract
Iron smelting is attested from at least the first part of the 1st millennium BC in both West and East Africa. In both regions the earliest furnaces seem to have been the slag-pit type. In this study the slags and furnace remains from such a furnace have been studied. The clays used for the furnace structures and for the tuyères were not especially refractory. Fayalite and hercynite with some wüstite were the main phases present in the slags, with compositions suggesting either the deliberate addition of clay as a flux or a significant clay contribution from the refractories. Such slags are known from contemporary and more recent African smelting practice. The significant differences in the slag mineralogy were found to be due to quite minor differences in composition rather than real variations in the processes carried on at the various sites studied.
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References
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Avery D H and Schmidt P 1979, ‘A metallurgical study of the iron bloomery particularly as practiced in Buhaya’, Journal of Metals 31, 14–20.
Avery D H, van der Merwe N and Saitowitz S 1987, ‘The metallurgy of the iron bloomery in Africa’, in R Maddin (ed), The beginning of the use of metals and alloys (Cambridge, Mass), 261–82.
Bernus S and Echard N 1985, ‘Metal working in the Agadez region (Niger): An ethno-archaeological approach’, in P Craddock and M J Hughes (eds), Furnaces and smelting technology in antiquity (London), 71–80.
Childs S T and Killick D 1993, ‘Indigenous African metallurgy: nature and culture’, Annual Review of Anthropology 22, 317–37.
Craddock P T 1995, Early metal mining and production (Edinburgh).
Crew P 1998 , ‘Laxton revisited’, Historical Metallurgy 32(2), 49–53.
David N, Heimann R R, Killick D and Wayman M 1989, ‘Between bloomery and blast furnace: Mafa iron-smelting technology in the North Cameroon’, African Archaeological Review 7, 183–208.
Descoeudres J-P, Huysecom E, Serneels V D and Zimmermann J-L (eds) 2001, The origins of iron metallurgy (= Mediterranean Archaeology 14).
Devisse J and Vansina J 1988, ‘Africa from the seventh to the eleventh century: Five formative centuries’, in M Elfasi (ed), General history of Africa, Vol 3 (Paris), 750–93.
Freestone I C and Tite M S 1986 ,’ Refractory materials in the ancient and pre-industrial world’, in W D Kingery (ed), Ceramics and civilization 3 (Westerville, Ohio), 35–63.
Gale W K V 1966, The Black Country iron industry (London).
Herbert E 1984, Red gold of Africa (Madison, Wisconsin).
Herbert E 1993, Iron, gender and power: Rituals of transformation in African societies (Bloomington, Indiana).
Holl A F C 2000, ‘Metals and precolonial African society’, in J O Vogel (ed), Ancient African metallurgy (Walnut Creek, California), 1–82.
Killick D 1996, ‘On claims for “advanced” ironworking technology in precolonial Africa’, in P R Schmidt (ed), The culture and technology of African iron production (Gainesville, Florida), 247–66.
Killick D J and Gordon R B 1988, ‘The mechanism of iron production in the bloomery furnace’, in R M Farquhar, R G V Hancock and L A Pavlish (eds), Proceedings of the 26th International Archaeometry Symposium (Toronto), 120–23.
Killick D, van der Merwe N J, Gordon R B and Grébenart D 1988, ‘Reassessment of the evidence for early metallurgy in Niger, West Africa’, Journal of Archaeological Science 15, 367–94.
Maniatis Y and Tite M S 1981, ‘Technological examination of Neolithic-Bronze Age pottery from central and south-east Europe and from the Near East’, Journal of Archaeological Science 8, 59–76.
Miller D and van der Merwe N J 1994, ‘Early metalworking in sub-Saharan Africa: A review of recent research’, Journal of African History 35, 1–36.
Morton G R and Wingrove J 1972, ‘Constitution of bloomery slags: Part 2, Medieval’, Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute 210, 478–88.
Muan A and Osborn E F 1965, Phase equilibria among oxides in steelmaking (Reading, Mass).
Pleiner R 2000, Iron in archaeology: The European bloomery smelters (Prague).
Roche E 1996, ‘L’infl uence anthropique sur l’environnement à l’âge du fer dans le Rwanda ancien’. Geo-Eco-Trop 20(1–4), 73–89.
Roche E and Van Grunderbeek M C 1987, ‘Apports de la palynologie à l’étude du Quaternaire supérieur au Rwanda’, in G Cambon, P Richard and J P Suc (eds), Palynologie et milieux tropicaux (9e symposium de l’APLF) (Montpellier: Mémoires et travaux d’EPHE 17), 111–27.
Roedder E 1978, ‘Silicate liquid immiscibility in magmas and in the system K2O-FeO-Al2O3-SiO2’, Geochimica Cosmochimica Acta 42, 1597–1617.
Sanderson D C W and Hunter J R 1981, ‘Compositional variability in vegetable ash’, Science and Archaeology 2(3), 27–30.
Schmidt P R (ed) 1996, The culture and technology of African iron production (Gainesville, Florida).
Schmidt P R 1997, Iron technology in East Africa (Bloomington, Indiana).
Tite M S, Maniatis Y, Meeks N D, Bimson M, Hughes M J and Leppard S C 1982, ‘Technological studies of ancient ceramics from the Near East, Aegean and south east Europe’, in T A and S F Wertime (eds), Early pyrotechnology (Washington, DC), 61–71.
Todd J A 1985, ‘Iron production by the Dimi of Ethiopia’, in R Haaland and P Shinnie (eds), African iron working (Oslo), 88–101.
Tylecote R F 1975, ‘The origin of iron smelting in Africa’, West African Journal of Archaeology 5, 1–9.
Tylecote R F 1987, The early history of metallurgy in Europe (London).
Tylecote R F, Ghaznavi H A S and Boydell P J 1977, ‘Partitioning of trace elements between ores, fl uxes slags and metal during the smelting of copper’, Journal of Archaeological Science 4, 305–33.
Van Grunderbeek M-C 1988, ‘Essai d’étude typologique de céramique urewe de la région des collines au Burundi et Rwanda’, Anzania 23, 11–55.
Van Grunderbeek M-C 1992, ‘Essai de delimitation chronologique de l’âge du fer ancien au Burundi, au Rwanda et dans la region des Grands Lacs’, Azania 27, 57–80.
Van Grunderbeek M C and Doutrelepont H 1989, ‘Étude de charbons de bois provenant des sites métallurgiques de l’âge du fer ancien au Rwanda et au Burundi’, in T Hackens, A V Munaut and C Till
(eds), Wood and archaeology (Bois et archéologie, First European Conference = PACT 22) (Louvain-la-Neuve), 281–95.
Van Grunderbeek M-C, Roche E and Doutrelepont H 1983, Le premier age du fer au Rwanda et au Burundi: Archéologie et environment (Brussels) .
Van Grunderbeek M-C, Roche E and Doutrelepont H 2001, ‘Un type de fourneau de fonte de fer associe a la culture Urewe (âge du fer ancien) au Rwanda et au Burundi’, in J-P Descoeudres, E Huysecom, V D Serneels and J-L Zimmermann (eds), The origins of iron metallurgy (= Mediterranean Archaeology 14), 271–97.
Van Grunderbeek M-C, and Roche E forthcoming, ‘Multi-disciplinary evidence of mixed farming during the Early Iron Age in Rwanda and Burundi (Urewe Culture, fi rst millennium BC to first millennium
AD)’, in T Denham, J Iriare and L Vrydags (eds), Rethinking agriculture (Walnut Creek, California).
Van Noten F 1983, Histoire archéologique de Rwanda (Tervuren).
Veldhuijzen H A and Rehren Th forthcoming, ‘Slags and the city: early iron production at Tell Hammeh (az-Zarqa), Jordan and Tel Beth-Shemesh’, in S La Niece, D R Hook and P T Craddock (eds), Proceedings of the 2005 British Museum Conference (London).
Whiteman J A and Okafor E E 2003, ‘Characterization of Nigerian bloomery iron smelting slags’, Historical Metallurgy 37(2), 71–84.
Avery D H and Schmidt P 1979, ‘A metallurgical study of the iron bloomery particularly as practiced in Buhaya’, Journal of Metals 31, 14–20.
Avery D H, van der Merwe N and Saitowitz S 1987, ‘The metallurgy of the iron bloomery in Africa’, in R Maddin (ed), The beginning of the use of metals and alloys (Cambridge, Mass), 261–82.
Bernus S and Echard N 1985, ‘Metal working in the Agadez region (Niger): An ethno-archaeological approach’, in P Craddock and M J Hughes (eds), Furnaces and smelting technology in antiquity (London), 71–80.
Childs S T and Killick D 1993, ‘Indigenous African metallurgy: nature and culture’, Annual Review of Anthropology 22, 317–37.
Craddock P T 1995, Early metal mining and production (Edinburgh).
Crew P 1998 , ‘Laxton revisited’, Historical Metallurgy 32(2), 49–53.
David N, Heimann R R, Killick D and Wayman M 1989, ‘Between bloomery and blast furnace: Mafa iron-smelting technology in the North Cameroon’, African Archaeological Review 7, 183–208.
Descoeudres J-P, Huysecom E, Serneels V D and Zimmermann J-L (eds) 2001, The origins of iron metallurgy (= Mediterranean Archaeology 14).
Devisse J and Vansina J 1988, ‘Africa from the seventh to the eleventh century: Five formative centuries’, in M Elfasi (ed), General history of Africa, Vol 3 (Paris), 750–93.
Freestone I C and Tite M S 1986 ,’ Refractory materials in the ancient and pre-industrial world’, in W D Kingery (ed), Ceramics and civilization 3 (Westerville, Ohio), 35–63.
Gale W K V 1966, The Black Country iron industry (London).
Herbert E 1984, Red gold of Africa (Madison, Wisconsin).
Herbert E 1993, Iron, gender and power: Rituals of transformation in African societies (Bloomington, Indiana).
Holl A F C 2000, ‘Metals and precolonial African society’, in J O Vogel (ed), Ancient African metallurgy (Walnut Creek, California), 1–82.
Killick D 1996, ‘On claims for “advanced” ironworking technology in precolonial Africa’, in P R Schmidt (ed), The culture and technology of African iron production (Gainesville, Florida), 247–66.
Killick D J and Gordon R B 1988, ‘The mechanism of iron production in the bloomery furnace’, in R M Farquhar, R G V Hancock and L A Pavlish (eds), Proceedings of the 26th International Archaeometry Symposium (Toronto), 120–23.
Killick D, van der Merwe N J, Gordon R B and Grébenart D 1988, ‘Reassessment of the evidence for early metallurgy in Niger, West Africa’, Journal of Archaeological Science 15, 367–94.
Maniatis Y and Tite M S 1981, ‘Technological examination of Neolithic-Bronze Age pottery from central and south-east Europe and from the Near East’, Journal of Archaeological Science 8, 59–76.
Miller D and van der Merwe N J 1994, ‘Early metalworking in sub-Saharan Africa: A review of recent research’, Journal of African History 35, 1–36.
Morton G R and Wingrove J 1972, ‘Constitution of bloomery slags: Part 2, Medieval’, Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute 210, 478–88.
Muan A and Osborn E F 1965, Phase equilibria among oxides in steelmaking (Reading, Mass).
Pleiner R 2000, Iron in archaeology: The European bloomery smelters (Prague).
Roche E 1996, ‘L’infl uence anthropique sur l’environnement à l’âge du fer dans le Rwanda ancien’. Geo-Eco-Trop 20(1–4), 73–89.
Roche E and Van Grunderbeek M C 1987, ‘Apports de la palynologie à l’étude du Quaternaire supérieur au Rwanda’, in G Cambon, P Richard and J P Suc (eds), Palynologie et milieux tropicaux (9e symposium de l’APLF) (Montpellier: Mémoires et travaux d’EPHE 17), 111–27.
Roedder E 1978, ‘Silicate liquid immiscibility in magmas and in the system K2O-FeO-Al2O3-SiO2’, Geochimica Cosmochimica Acta 42, 1597–1617.
Sanderson D C W and Hunter J R 1981, ‘Compositional variability in vegetable ash’, Science and Archaeology 2(3), 27–30.
Schmidt P R (ed) 1996, The culture and technology of African iron production (Gainesville, Florida).
Schmidt P R 1997, Iron technology in East Africa (Bloomington, Indiana).
Tite M S, Maniatis Y, Meeks N D, Bimson M, Hughes M J and Leppard S C 1982, ‘Technological studies of ancient ceramics from the Near East, Aegean and south east Europe’, in T A and S F Wertime (eds), Early pyrotechnology (Washington, DC), 61–71.
Todd J A 1985, ‘Iron production by the Dimi of Ethiopia’, in R Haaland and P Shinnie (eds), African iron working (Oslo), 88–101.
Tylecote R F 1975, ‘The origin of iron smelting in Africa’, West African Journal of Archaeology 5, 1–9.
Tylecote R F 1987, The early history of metallurgy in Europe (London).
Tylecote R F, Ghaznavi H A S and Boydell P J 1977, ‘Partitioning of trace elements between ores, fl uxes slags and metal during the smelting of copper’, Journal of Archaeological Science 4, 305–33.
Van Grunderbeek M-C 1988, ‘Essai d’étude typologique de céramique urewe de la région des collines au Burundi et Rwanda’, Anzania 23, 11–55.
Van Grunderbeek M-C 1992, ‘Essai de delimitation chronologique de l’âge du fer ancien au Burundi, au Rwanda et dans la region des Grands Lacs’, Azania 27, 57–80.
Van Grunderbeek M C and Doutrelepont H 1989, ‘Étude de charbons de bois provenant des sites métallurgiques de l’âge du fer ancien au Rwanda et au Burundi’, in T Hackens, A V Munaut and C Till
(eds), Wood and archaeology (Bois et archéologie, First European Conference = PACT 22) (Louvain-la-Neuve), 281–95.
Van Grunderbeek M-C, Roche E and Doutrelepont H 1983, Le premier age du fer au Rwanda et au Burundi: Archéologie et environment (Brussels) .
Van Grunderbeek M-C, Roche E and Doutrelepont H 2001, ‘Un type de fourneau de fonte de fer associe a la culture Urewe (âge du fer ancien) au Rwanda et au Burundi’, in J-P Descoeudres, E Huysecom, V D Serneels and J-L Zimmermann (eds), The origins of iron metallurgy (= Mediterranean Archaeology 14), 271–97.
Van Grunderbeek M-C, and Roche E forthcoming, ‘Multi-disciplinary evidence of mixed farming during the Early Iron Age in Rwanda and Burundi (Urewe Culture, fi rst millennium BC to first millennium
AD)’, in T Denham, J Iriare and L Vrydags (eds), Rethinking agriculture (Walnut Creek, California).
Van Noten F 1983, Histoire archéologique de Rwanda (Tervuren).
Veldhuijzen H A and Rehren Th forthcoming, ‘Slags and the city: early iron production at Tell Hammeh (az-Zarqa), Jordan and Tel Beth-Shemesh’, in S La Niece, D R Hook and P T Craddock (eds), Proceedings of the 2005 British Museum Conference (London).
Whiteman J A and Okafor E E 2003, ‘Characterization of Nigerian bloomery iron smelting slags’, Historical Metallurgy 37(2), 71–84.
How to Cite
Early Iron Age iron-smelting debris from Rwanda and Burundi, East Africa. (2021). Historical Metallurgy, 41(1), 1-14. https://hmsjournal.org/index.php/home/article/view/218
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Early Iron Age iron-smelting debris from Rwanda and Burundi, East Africa. (2021). Historical Metallurgy, 41(1), 1-14. https://hmsjournal.org/index.php/home/article/view/218