Bloomery ironmaking in Latvia – a comparative study of Iron Age and medieval technologies
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Published
Jan 1, 2022
Abstract
The technology of bloomery iron production in Latvia is a little-studied topic. Only a few excavations have been undertaken, mostly during the 1950s and 60s in connection with hydropower development along the river Daugava. Sources from archives and collections have been reviewed, re-studied and re-interpreted in the light of current knowledge, as part of the TechTrans research project. Visual studies have also been performed to clarify whether the slag was tapped, as previously interpreted, or whether production could be related to the more common slag-pit technology. Archaeometallurgical samples from four of the excavated sites have been analysed to obtain information on the technology, development, processes and the quality of production. The results of this study are set in the context of the technical development of bloomery practice in neighbouring regions to identify influences that may have affected the development of bloomery iron production in Latvia during the Iron Age and medieval period.
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References
Andersen A H, Kaul F and Voss O 1987, ‘Danmarks ældste jernudvindingsovne’, in Danmarks længste udgravning (København), 176–180.
Anteins A 1976, Melnais metāls Latvijā [Ferrous metals in Latvia] (Rīga).
Artamonov M I 1955a, ‘Arheologicheskie issledovanii v Iuzhnoi Podolii’ [Archaeological investigation in south Podolia], Kratkie Soobshcheniia Instituta Istopii Materialʼnoi Kulʼtur 59, 100–117.
Artamonov M I 1955b, ‘Slavyanskiye zhelezoplavil’nye petchi na srednom Dnestre’ [Slavic iron smelting furnaces on the middle Dniester]. Soobshcheniya Gosudarstvennogo Ermitazha 7 (Leningrad), 26–29.
Atgāzis M 1994, ‘Par Jaunlīves apmetni un tajā atklāto dzelzs ieguves krāsni’ [On Jaunlīve settlement site and the iron smelting furnace discovered there], Arheoloģija un etnogrāfija 16, 81–91.
Bidzilia V I and Pachkova S P 1969, ‘Zarubinetskoe poselenie u s. Liutezh’ [The Zarubinets settlement site at the village of Liutezh], Materialy i issledovaniia po arheologii SSSR 160, 51–74.
Bielinen K 2011, ‘A new perspective on the ancient bloomery smelting with a pit’, in J Hošek, H Cleere and L Mihok (eds), The archaeometallurgy of iron. Recent developments in archaeological and scientific research (Prague), 31–40.
Daiga J 1964, ‘Dzelzs ieguves krāsnis Sēlpils Spietiņu apmetnē’ [Iron smelting furnaces on the Sēlpils Spietiņi settlement site], Arheoloģija un etnogrāfija 6, 23–37.
Gassmann G and Schaffer A 2014, ‘Early Iron production in Germany – a short review’, in B Cech and T Rehren (eds), Early iron in Europe (Montagnac: Monographies instumentum 50), 23–32.
Gassmann G, Hauptmann A, Hübner C, Ruthardt T and Yalcin Ü 2005, Forschungen zur keltischen Eisenverhüttung in Südwestdeutschland [Research on Celtic Iron Smelting in South-Western Germany] (Stuttgart: Forschungen und Berichte zur Vor und Frühgeschichte in Baden-Würtemberg 92).
Grandin, L and Hjärthner-Holdar E 2003, ‘Early iron production in the red earth area, south central Sweden’, in L C Nørbach (ed), Prehistoric and medieval direct iron smelting in Scandinavia and Europe: aspects of technology and society. Proceedings of the Sandbjerg conference 16th to 20th September 1999 (Aarhus: Acta Jutlandica 76(2)), 33-36.
Hjärtner-Holdar E H, Grandin L and Forenius S 2013, ‘Blästbruk – finns det en systematic mellan tid, rum och typ?’ [Bloomery iron making – does it exist a systematic between time, space and type], in B Rundberget, J H Larsen and T H B Haraldsen (eds), Ovnstypologi og ovnskronologi i den nordiske jernvinna. Jernvinna i Oppland [Furnace typology and chronology in the Nordic iron production. Bloomery iron making in Oppland] (Kristiansand), 24–38.
Hjärtner-Holdar E H, Forenius S and Willim A 2014, ‘A Roman Iron Age bloomery site in Gästrikland, Sweden. Evidence of a widespread trade?’ In B Chech and T Rehren (eds), Early iron in Europe (Montagnac: Monographies instrumentum 50), 261–276.
Jakovļeva M, Auziņa D, Brūzis R, Mørkestøl Gundersen I, Rundberget B, Bebre V, Doniņa I, Kļava V, Straube G, Bērziņš V, Vīksna A, Actiņš A, Meija R, Popovs K, Upmalis R and Parfentev A 2019, ‘Gone to smelt iron in Courland: technology transfer in the development of an early modern industry’, Post-Medieval Archaeology 53(1), 102-124.
Jouttijärvi A and Voss O 2011, ‘The oldest iron smelting furnaces in Denmark’, in J Hošek, H Cleere and L Mihok (eds), The archaeometallurgy of iron. Recent developments in archaeological and scientific research (Prague), 55–64 and 292–293.
Jouttijärvi A and Voss O 2013a, ‘“Skovmarkenovnen” fra Espevej og fra Sønder Holsted – Den tidligste jernudvinding i Danmark’ [‘The Skovmarken furnace’ from Espevej and from southern Holsted – The earliest iron extraction in Denmark], in B Rundberget, J H Larsen and T H B Haraldsen (eds), Ovnstypologi og ovnskronologi i den nordiske jernvinna. Jernvinna i Oppland [Furnace typology and chronology in the Nordic iron production. Bloomery iron making in Oppland] (Kristiansand), 39–46.
Jouttijärvi A and Voss O 2013b, ‘Drengsted/Scharmbeck slaggegrube ovnen i Danmark og Skandinavien’ [The Drengsted/Scharmbeck slagpit-furnace in Denmark and Scandinavia], in B Rundberget, J H Larsen and T H B Haraldsen (eds) Ovnstypologi og ovnskronologi i den nordiske jernvinna. Jernvinna i Oppland. [Furnace typology and chronology in the Nordic iron production. Bloomery iron making in Oppland.] (Kristiansand), 83–92.
Kolchin B A 1953, ‘Chernaia metallurgiia i metalloobrabotka v Drevnei Rusi’ [Ferrous metallurgy and metalworking in ancient Russia], Materialy i issledovaniia po arheologii SSSR 32, 260.
Kolchin B A 1959, ‘Zhelezoobrabatyvaiushchee remeslo Novgoroda Velikogo’ [The craft of ironworking in Novgorod the Great], Materialy i issledovaniia po arheologii SSSR 65, 7–120.
Kolchin B A 1985, ‘Metalurgiia i metalloobrabotka zheleza i stali’ [Metallurgy and metalworking of iron and steel], in Kolchin B A (ed), Drevniaia Rus: gorod, zamok, selo. Arkheologiia SSSR (Moskva), 244–254.
Kropotkin V V and Nakhapetian V E 1976, ‘Novyi centr zhelezodelatelʼnogo proizvodstva III–IV vv. n.e. v baseine Iuzhnogo Buga’ [A new centre of iron production of the 3rd–4th century AD in the basin of the South Bug], Sovetskaia Arheologiia 3, 317–324.
Latvijas PSR arheoloģija 1974, Latvijas PSR arheoloģija [Archaeology of the Latvian SSR]. Rīga.
Lūsēns M 2010, ‘Arheoloģiskie pētījumi Kalna ielā Kuldīgā’ [Archaeological investigation on Kalna iela, Kuldīga], Arheologu pētījumi Latvijā 2008 un 2009. gadā, 147–152.
Magnusson G 1986, Lågteknisk järnhantering i Jämtlands län [Low technical iron extraction in Jämtland county] (Stockholm: Jernkontorets Bergshistoriska Skriftserie 22).
Mellis O 1938, ‘Limonita atradnes Latvijā’ [Limonite deposits in Latvia], Ģeografiski raksti/Folia Geographica 6, 103–144.
Mugurēvičs Ē 1977a, ‘Izrakumi Sabilē un Tojātos’ [Excavation in Sabile and at Tojāti], Zinātniskās atskaites sesijas materiāli par arheologu un etnogrāfu 1976. gada ekspedīciju darba rezultātiem, 48–51.
Mugurēvičs Ē 1977b, Oliņkalna un Lokstenes pilsnovadi: 3.–15. gs. arheoloģiskie pieminekļi [The Oliņkalns and Lokstene Castle districts: Archaeological sites of the 3rd–15th century] (Rīga).
Mugurēvičs Ē 1982, Pārskats par arheoloģiskajiem izrakumiem Dinaburgas pilī 1982. gadā [Report on archaeological excavation of Dinaburga Castle in 1982] (Repository of Archaeological Material, Institute of Latvian History at the University of Latvia, VIAA:476).
Mugurēvičs Ē 1984, ‘Arheoloģiskie izrakumi Dinaburgas pilsētiņā’ [Archaeological excavation in the township of Dinaburga], Zinātniskās atskaites sesijas materiāli par arheologu un etnogrāfu 1982 un 1983. gada pētījumu rezultātiem, 69–75.
Mugurēvičs Ē 1999, ‘The work of archaeologists from the Latvian Institute of History in the post-war years (1946–1998)’, in O W Jensen, H Karlsson and A Vijups (eds), Inside Latvian archaeology (Gothenburg), 153–157.
Navasaitis J and Selskiené A 2007, ‘Iron smelting techniques in the Virbaliūnai settlement’. Archaeologi Baltica 9, 387-394.
Nomals P 1933, ‘Sārnates purvrūda’ [The Sārnate bog ore], Ekonomists 24, 894–898.
Peets J 2003, The power of iron. Iron production and blacksmithy in Estonia and neighbouring areas in prehistoric period and the Middle Ages (Tallinn: Muinasaja teadus 12).
Pleiner R 2000, Iron in archaeology: the European bloomery smelters (Prague).
Rundberget B 2010, ‘Jernproduksjon i Norge i romertid; en marginal eller sentral ressurs?’ [Iron extraction in Norway in the Roman period; a marginal or central resource], in I M Gundersen and M H Eriksen (eds), På sporet av romersk jernalder [On the trail of the Roman Iron Age] (Oslo: Nicolay skrifter 3), 36–49.
Rundberget B 2016, Tales of the iron bloomery. Ironmaking in southeastern Norway – foundation of statehood c.700–1300 (Leiden/Boston).
Rundberget B and Larsen J H 2017, ‘The earliest iron bloomery in southeastern Norway – Technological conformity and variation’, in I Montero and A Perea (eds), Archaeometallurgy in Europe IV (Madrid: Bibliotheca Praehistorica Hispana 33), 217-226.
Rybakov B A 1948, Remeslo Drevnei Rusi [Crafts in ancient Russia] (Moscow).
Salatkiené B 2008, ‘Iron metallurgy in Lithuania. An analysis of archaeological finds (part 1)’, Archaeologi Baltica 9, 61-76.
Šnore E 1957, ‘Asotes pilskalna krāsnis’ [The furnaces of Asote hillfort], Arheoloģija un etnogrāfija 1, 5–20.
Šnore E and Zariņa A 1980, Senā Sēlpils [Ancient Sēlpils] (Rīga).
Stenvik L 2003, ‘Recent results from investigations of iron production in northern Europe’, in L C Nørbach (ed), Prehistoric and medieval direct iron smelting in Scandinavia and Europe, aspects of technology and science. Proceedings of the Sandbjerg conference 16th to 20th September 1999 (Aarhus: Acta Jutlandica 76(2)), 77–82.
Stenvik L 2013, ‘Trøndelagsovnen – en studie basert på materielle levninger etter jernframstilling i Midt-Norge’ [The Trøndelag furnace – a study based on material remnants from bloomery iron making in Central Norway], in B Rundberget, J H Larsen and T H B Haraldsen (eds), Ovnstypologi og ovnskronologi i den nordiske jernvinna. Jernvinna i Oppland [Furnace typology and chronology in the Nordic iron production. Bloomery Iron making in Oppland] (Kristiansand), 47–54.
Strömberg B 2008, Det förlorade järnet. Dansk protoindustriell järnhandtering [The lost iron. Danish proto-industrial iron production] (Stockholm).
Toreld C and P Wranning P 2005, Framgrävt förflutet från Fyllinge [Excavated past from Fyllinge] (= Arkeologiska rapporter från Landsantikvarien 2) (Halland).
Urtāns V 1960, Pārskats par arheoloģiskajiem izrakumiem Aizkraukles senpilsētā un kapsētā 1960. gadā [Report on archaeological excavation at Aizkraukle early town site and cemetery in 1960] (Repository of Archaeological Material, Institute of Latvian History at the University of Latvia, VIAA:66).
Vilsone M 1963, ‘1962. gada arheoloģiskie izrakumi Rīgā, Alberta laukumā’ [Archaeological excavation in 1962 in Alberta laukums, Riga], Zinātniskās atskaites sesijas referātu tēzes par 1962. gada arheoloģiskām un etnogrāfiskām ekspedīcijām, 17–19.
Žalnierius A, Navasaitis J and Balčiūnas D 2007, ‘The iron smelting site in Virbaliūnai ancient settlement’, Archaeologia Baltica 8, 377–386.
Anteins A 1976, Melnais metāls Latvijā [Ferrous metals in Latvia] (Rīga).
Artamonov M I 1955a, ‘Arheologicheskie issledovanii v Iuzhnoi Podolii’ [Archaeological investigation in south Podolia], Kratkie Soobshcheniia Instituta Istopii Materialʼnoi Kulʼtur 59, 100–117.
Artamonov M I 1955b, ‘Slavyanskiye zhelezoplavil’nye petchi na srednom Dnestre’ [Slavic iron smelting furnaces on the middle Dniester]. Soobshcheniya Gosudarstvennogo Ermitazha 7 (Leningrad), 26–29.
Atgāzis M 1994, ‘Par Jaunlīves apmetni un tajā atklāto dzelzs ieguves krāsni’ [On Jaunlīve settlement site and the iron smelting furnace discovered there], Arheoloģija un etnogrāfija 16, 81–91.
Bidzilia V I and Pachkova S P 1969, ‘Zarubinetskoe poselenie u s. Liutezh’ [The Zarubinets settlement site at the village of Liutezh], Materialy i issledovaniia po arheologii SSSR 160, 51–74.
Bielinen K 2011, ‘A new perspective on the ancient bloomery smelting with a pit’, in J Hošek, H Cleere and L Mihok (eds), The archaeometallurgy of iron. Recent developments in archaeological and scientific research (Prague), 31–40.
Daiga J 1964, ‘Dzelzs ieguves krāsnis Sēlpils Spietiņu apmetnē’ [Iron smelting furnaces on the Sēlpils Spietiņi settlement site], Arheoloģija un etnogrāfija 6, 23–37.
Gassmann G and Schaffer A 2014, ‘Early Iron production in Germany – a short review’, in B Cech and T Rehren (eds), Early iron in Europe (Montagnac: Monographies instumentum 50), 23–32.
Gassmann G, Hauptmann A, Hübner C, Ruthardt T and Yalcin Ü 2005, Forschungen zur keltischen Eisenverhüttung in Südwestdeutschland [Research on Celtic Iron Smelting in South-Western Germany] (Stuttgart: Forschungen und Berichte zur Vor und Frühgeschichte in Baden-Würtemberg 92).
Grandin, L and Hjärthner-Holdar E 2003, ‘Early iron production in the red earth area, south central Sweden’, in L C Nørbach (ed), Prehistoric and medieval direct iron smelting in Scandinavia and Europe: aspects of technology and society. Proceedings of the Sandbjerg conference 16th to 20th September 1999 (Aarhus: Acta Jutlandica 76(2)), 33-36.
Hjärtner-Holdar E H, Grandin L and Forenius S 2013, ‘Blästbruk – finns det en systematic mellan tid, rum och typ?’ [Bloomery iron making – does it exist a systematic between time, space and type], in B Rundberget, J H Larsen and T H B Haraldsen (eds), Ovnstypologi og ovnskronologi i den nordiske jernvinna. Jernvinna i Oppland [Furnace typology and chronology in the Nordic iron production. Bloomery iron making in Oppland] (Kristiansand), 24–38.
Hjärtner-Holdar E H, Forenius S and Willim A 2014, ‘A Roman Iron Age bloomery site in Gästrikland, Sweden. Evidence of a widespread trade?’ In B Chech and T Rehren (eds), Early iron in Europe (Montagnac: Monographies instrumentum 50), 261–276.
Jakovļeva M, Auziņa D, Brūzis R, Mørkestøl Gundersen I, Rundberget B, Bebre V, Doniņa I, Kļava V, Straube G, Bērziņš V, Vīksna A, Actiņš A, Meija R, Popovs K, Upmalis R and Parfentev A 2019, ‘Gone to smelt iron in Courland: technology transfer in the development of an early modern industry’, Post-Medieval Archaeology 53(1), 102-124.
Jouttijärvi A and Voss O 2011, ‘The oldest iron smelting furnaces in Denmark’, in J Hošek, H Cleere and L Mihok (eds), The archaeometallurgy of iron. Recent developments in archaeological and scientific research (Prague), 55–64 and 292–293.
Jouttijärvi A and Voss O 2013a, ‘“Skovmarkenovnen” fra Espevej og fra Sønder Holsted – Den tidligste jernudvinding i Danmark’ [‘The Skovmarken furnace’ from Espevej and from southern Holsted – The earliest iron extraction in Denmark], in B Rundberget, J H Larsen and T H B Haraldsen (eds), Ovnstypologi og ovnskronologi i den nordiske jernvinna. Jernvinna i Oppland [Furnace typology and chronology in the Nordic iron production. Bloomery iron making in Oppland] (Kristiansand), 39–46.
Jouttijärvi A and Voss O 2013b, ‘Drengsted/Scharmbeck slaggegrube ovnen i Danmark og Skandinavien’ [The Drengsted/Scharmbeck slagpit-furnace in Denmark and Scandinavia], in B Rundberget, J H Larsen and T H B Haraldsen (eds) Ovnstypologi og ovnskronologi i den nordiske jernvinna. Jernvinna i Oppland. [Furnace typology and chronology in the Nordic iron production. Bloomery iron making in Oppland.] (Kristiansand), 83–92.
Kolchin B A 1953, ‘Chernaia metallurgiia i metalloobrabotka v Drevnei Rusi’ [Ferrous metallurgy and metalworking in ancient Russia], Materialy i issledovaniia po arheologii SSSR 32, 260.
Kolchin B A 1959, ‘Zhelezoobrabatyvaiushchee remeslo Novgoroda Velikogo’ [The craft of ironworking in Novgorod the Great], Materialy i issledovaniia po arheologii SSSR 65, 7–120.
Kolchin B A 1985, ‘Metalurgiia i metalloobrabotka zheleza i stali’ [Metallurgy and metalworking of iron and steel], in Kolchin B A (ed), Drevniaia Rus: gorod, zamok, selo. Arkheologiia SSSR (Moskva), 244–254.
Kropotkin V V and Nakhapetian V E 1976, ‘Novyi centr zhelezodelatelʼnogo proizvodstva III–IV vv. n.e. v baseine Iuzhnogo Buga’ [A new centre of iron production of the 3rd–4th century AD in the basin of the South Bug], Sovetskaia Arheologiia 3, 317–324.
Latvijas PSR arheoloģija 1974, Latvijas PSR arheoloģija [Archaeology of the Latvian SSR]. Rīga.
Lūsēns M 2010, ‘Arheoloģiskie pētījumi Kalna ielā Kuldīgā’ [Archaeological investigation on Kalna iela, Kuldīga], Arheologu pētījumi Latvijā 2008 un 2009. gadā, 147–152.
Magnusson G 1986, Lågteknisk järnhantering i Jämtlands län [Low technical iron extraction in Jämtland county] (Stockholm: Jernkontorets Bergshistoriska Skriftserie 22).
Mellis O 1938, ‘Limonita atradnes Latvijā’ [Limonite deposits in Latvia], Ģeografiski raksti/Folia Geographica 6, 103–144.
Mugurēvičs Ē 1977a, ‘Izrakumi Sabilē un Tojātos’ [Excavation in Sabile and at Tojāti], Zinātniskās atskaites sesijas materiāli par arheologu un etnogrāfu 1976. gada ekspedīciju darba rezultātiem, 48–51.
Mugurēvičs Ē 1977b, Oliņkalna un Lokstenes pilsnovadi: 3.–15. gs. arheoloģiskie pieminekļi [The Oliņkalns and Lokstene Castle districts: Archaeological sites of the 3rd–15th century] (Rīga).
Mugurēvičs Ē 1982, Pārskats par arheoloģiskajiem izrakumiem Dinaburgas pilī 1982. gadā [Report on archaeological excavation of Dinaburga Castle in 1982] (Repository of Archaeological Material, Institute of Latvian History at the University of Latvia, VIAA:476).
Mugurēvičs Ē 1984, ‘Arheoloģiskie izrakumi Dinaburgas pilsētiņā’ [Archaeological excavation in the township of Dinaburga], Zinātniskās atskaites sesijas materiāli par arheologu un etnogrāfu 1982 un 1983. gada pētījumu rezultātiem, 69–75.
Mugurēvičs Ē 1999, ‘The work of archaeologists from the Latvian Institute of History in the post-war years (1946–1998)’, in O W Jensen, H Karlsson and A Vijups (eds), Inside Latvian archaeology (Gothenburg), 153–157.
Navasaitis J and Selskiené A 2007, ‘Iron smelting techniques in the Virbaliūnai settlement’. Archaeologi Baltica 9, 387-394.
Nomals P 1933, ‘Sārnates purvrūda’ [The Sārnate bog ore], Ekonomists 24, 894–898.
Peets J 2003, The power of iron. Iron production and blacksmithy in Estonia and neighbouring areas in prehistoric period and the Middle Ages (Tallinn: Muinasaja teadus 12).
Pleiner R 2000, Iron in archaeology: the European bloomery smelters (Prague).
Rundberget B 2010, ‘Jernproduksjon i Norge i romertid; en marginal eller sentral ressurs?’ [Iron extraction in Norway in the Roman period; a marginal or central resource], in I M Gundersen and M H Eriksen (eds), På sporet av romersk jernalder [On the trail of the Roman Iron Age] (Oslo: Nicolay skrifter 3), 36–49.
Rundberget B 2016, Tales of the iron bloomery. Ironmaking in southeastern Norway – foundation of statehood c.700–1300 (Leiden/Boston).
Rundberget B and Larsen J H 2017, ‘The earliest iron bloomery in southeastern Norway – Technological conformity and variation’, in I Montero and A Perea (eds), Archaeometallurgy in Europe IV (Madrid: Bibliotheca Praehistorica Hispana 33), 217-226.
Rybakov B A 1948, Remeslo Drevnei Rusi [Crafts in ancient Russia] (Moscow).
Salatkiené B 2008, ‘Iron metallurgy in Lithuania. An analysis of archaeological finds (part 1)’, Archaeologi Baltica 9, 61-76.
Šnore E 1957, ‘Asotes pilskalna krāsnis’ [The furnaces of Asote hillfort], Arheoloģija un etnogrāfija 1, 5–20.
Šnore E and Zariņa A 1980, Senā Sēlpils [Ancient Sēlpils] (Rīga).
Stenvik L 2003, ‘Recent results from investigations of iron production in northern Europe’, in L C Nørbach (ed), Prehistoric and medieval direct iron smelting in Scandinavia and Europe, aspects of technology and science. Proceedings of the Sandbjerg conference 16th to 20th September 1999 (Aarhus: Acta Jutlandica 76(2)), 77–82.
Stenvik L 2013, ‘Trøndelagsovnen – en studie basert på materielle levninger etter jernframstilling i Midt-Norge’ [The Trøndelag furnace – a study based on material remnants from bloomery iron making in Central Norway], in B Rundberget, J H Larsen and T H B Haraldsen (eds), Ovnstypologi og ovnskronologi i den nordiske jernvinna. Jernvinna i Oppland [Furnace typology and chronology in the Nordic iron production. Bloomery Iron making in Oppland] (Kristiansand), 47–54.
Strömberg B 2008, Det förlorade järnet. Dansk protoindustriell järnhandtering [The lost iron. Danish proto-industrial iron production] (Stockholm).
Toreld C and P Wranning P 2005, Framgrävt förflutet från Fyllinge [Excavated past from Fyllinge] (= Arkeologiska rapporter från Landsantikvarien 2) (Halland).
Urtāns V 1960, Pārskats par arheoloģiskajiem izrakumiem Aizkraukles senpilsētā un kapsētā 1960. gadā [Report on archaeological excavation at Aizkraukle early town site and cemetery in 1960] (Repository of Archaeological Material, Institute of Latvian History at the University of Latvia, VIAA:66).
Vilsone M 1963, ‘1962. gada arheoloģiskie izrakumi Rīgā, Alberta laukumā’ [Archaeological excavation in 1962 in Alberta laukums, Riga], Zinātniskās atskaites sesijas referātu tēzes par 1962. gada arheoloģiskām un etnogrāfiskām ekspedīcijām, 17–19.
Žalnierius A, Navasaitis J and Balčiūnas D 2007, ‘The iron smelting site in Virbaliūnai ancient settlement’, Archaeologia Baltica 8, 377–386.
How to Cite
Bloomery ironmaking in Latvia – a comparative study of Iron Age and medieval technologies. (2022). Historical Metallurgy, 52(2), 96-109. https://hmsjournal.org/index.php/home/article/view/22
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How to Cite
Bloomery ironmaking in Latvia – a comparative study of Iron Age and medieval technologies. (2022). Historical Metallurgy, 52(2), 96-109. https://hmsjournal.org/index.php/home/article/view/22