Investigating the manufacturing technology of later Iron Age torus torcs
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Published
Jan 1, 2022
Abstract
Recent work (Machling and Williamson 2016; 2018; 2019) has identified a previously unrecognised method of sheet-working manufacture for many British gold alloy torus torcs. It was thought terminals were cast onto the neck-ring wire using a lost wax process, however, research has shown that, in addition to sheet terminals, there are two casting methods used for torus torc terminals – those that are separately cast and those that are directly cast-on. Recent X-radiography proved the Newark torc terminals to be of cast production but with elements of sheet/hammered technology and this new evidence is presented here. This paper examines the manufacturing of gold torus torcs and revises the understanding of their distribution, arguing for the origins of the sheet metal tradition beyond East Anglia. It is proposed that cast torcs are copying sheet-worked designs and this attempt at creating something designed to be made using a different technology proved unsuccessful.
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References
Atherton R 2016, ‘The Newark Iron Age torc’, Transactions of the Thoroton Society of Nottinghamshire 120, 43-53.
Bayley J 1992, ‘Goldworking in Britain from Iron Age to medieval times’, Interdisciplinary Science Review 17(4), 314-21.
Brailsford J W 1951, ‘The Snettisham Treasure’, British Museum Quarterly 16(3), 79-80.
Brailsford J W 1971, ‘The Sedgeford Torc’, British Museum Quarterly 35(1), 16-19.
Brailsford J W and Stapley J E 1972, ‘The Ipswich Torcs’, Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 38, 219-34.
Bushe Fox J P 1915, Excavations at Hengistbury Head, Hampshire in 1911-12 (Oxford).
Clarke R R 1951, ‘A Celtic torc terminal from North Creake, Norfolk’, Archaeological Journal 106, 59–61.
Clarke R R 1954, ‘The early Iron Age treasure from Snettisham, Norfolk’, Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 20, 27–86.
Crawford H S 1925, ‘The engraved bone objects found at Lough Crew, Co. Meath, in 1865’, Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland 15(1), 15-29.
Farley J 2017, Portable Antiquities Scheme: WMID-FD08D9. https://finds.org.uk/database/artefacts/record/id/820219 [accessed 9 May 2017]
Farley J, Gilmore T, Sutherland Z and Nicolls A 2018, ‘The Leekfrith torcs’ Transactions Staffordshire Archaeological and Historical Society 50, 110–114.
Feachem R W 1958, ‘The ‘Cairnmuir’ hoard from Netherurd, Peebleshire’, Proceedings Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 91, 112–16.
Fox C 1945, A find of the Early Iron Age from Llyn Cerrig Bach, Anglesey: Interim Report (Cardiff).
Garrow D, Gosden C, Hill J D and Bronk Ramsey C 2009, ‘Dating Celtic Art: a major radiocarbon dating programme of Iron Age and early Roman metalwork in Britain , Archaeological Journal 166, 79-123.
Gwilt A, Kucharski K, Silvester R and Davis M 2005, ‘A Late Bronze Age hoard from Trevalyn Farm, Rossett, Wrexham’, Studia Celtica 39, 27-61.
Hautenauve H 1999, ‘Les torques tubulaires de Snettisham. Importation continentale ou production insulaire?’, Lunala, Archaeologia Protohistorica 7, 89–100.
Hautenauve H 2005, Les torcs d’or du second Âge du Fer en Europe: techniques, typologie et symbolique (Rennes).
Hawkes C F C 1936, ‘The Needwood Forest torc’, British Museum Quarterly 11(1), 3-4.
Hawkes C F C 1940, ‘An Iron Age torc from Spettisbury Rings, Dorset’, Archaeological Journal 97, 112-14.
Hill J D 2004, Portable Antiquities Scheme: PAS-F070D5. https://finds.org.uk/database/artefacts/record/id/508203 [accessed 9 May 2017].
Hill J D 2005, Portable Antiquities Scheme: DENO-4B33B7. https://finds.org.uk/database/artefacts/record/id/751306 [accessed 9 May 2017].
Hunter F 2007, ‘Artefacts, regions and identities in the northern British Iron Age’, in C Haselgrove and T Moore (eds), The later Iron Age in Britain and beyond (Oxford), 286-96.
Hunter F 2010, ‘A unique Iron Age gold hoard found near Stirling’, PAST: Newsletter of the Prehistoric Society 65, 3–5.
Hunter F 2014, ‘Auldearn’, Discovery and Excavation in Scotland 15, 97.
Hunter F 2018, ‘The Blair Drummond (UK) hoard: Regional styles and international connections in the later Iron Age’, in R Schwab, P-Y Milcent, B Armbruster and E Pernicka (eds), Early Iron Age gold in Celtic Europe: Science, technology and archaeometry. Proceedings of the International Congress held in Toulouse, France, 11-14 March 2015 (Rahden), 431-40.
Hutcheson N 2007, ‘An archaeological investigation of later Iron Age Norfolk: Analysing hoarding patterns across the landscape’, in C Haselgrove and T Moore (eds), The later Iron Age in Britain and beyond (Oxford), 358-370.
Jope M 2000, Early Celtic Art in the British Isles (Oxford).
Joy J 2010, Portable Antiquities Scheme: SWYOR-CFE7F7. https://finds.org.uk/database/artefacts/record/id/392736 [accessed 1 September 2019].
Joy J 2016, ‘Hoards as collections: Re-examining the Snettisham Iron Age hoards from the perspective of collecting practice’, World Archaeology 82(2), 239–53.
Joy J 2018, ‘Snettisham: Shining new light on old treasure’, Jewellery History Today 31, 3-5.
Katori M, Io T and Ibusr K 2006, Kinko no dento giho [A manual of traditional gold/metal work] (Tokyo).
La Niece S, Farley J, Meeks N and Joy J 2018, ‘Gold in Iron Age Britain’, in R Schwab, P-Y Milcent, B Armbruster and E Pernicka (eds), Early Iron Age gold in Celtic Europe: Science, technology and archaeometry. Proceedings of the International Congress held in Toulouse, France, 11-14 March 2015 (Rahden), 407-30.
Longworth I 1992, ‘Snettisham revisited’, International Journal of Cultural Property 1(2), 333–42.
Macdonald P 2007, Llyn Cerrig Bach: a study of the copper alloy artefacts from the insular La Tène assemblage (Cardiff).
Machling T and Williamson R 2016, ‘The Netherurd torc terminal – insights into torc technology’, PAST: Newsletter of the Prehistoric Society 84, 3–5.
Machling T and Williamson R 2018, ‘“Up Close and Personal”: The later Iron Age torcs from Newark, Nottinghamshire and Netherurd, Peeblesshire’, Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 84, 387-405.
Machling T and Williamson R 2019, ‘“Cut and shuts”: The reworking of Iron Age gold torus torcs’, Later Prehistoric Finds Group Newsletter 13, 4-7.
Machling T and Williamson R forthcoming, ‘“Damn clever metal bashers”: The thoughts and insights of 21st century goldsmiths, silversmiths and jewellers regarding Iron Age gold torus torcs’, in C Gosden, H Chittock, C Nimura and P Hommel (eds), Art in the Eurasian Iron Age: Context, connections, and scale. (Oxford).
Maryon H 1944, ‘The Bawsey torc’, Antiquaries Journal 24, 149-51.
Meeks N, Mongiatti A and Joy J 2014, ‘Precious metal torcs from the Iron Age Snettisham treasure: Metallurgy and analysis’, in E Pernicka and R Schwab (eds), Under the Volcano: Proceedings of the international symposium on the metallurgy of the European Iron Age (Rahden), 135–56.
Meeks N, Mongiatti A, O’Flynn D and Hook D, with contributions from Fenn J forthcoming, ‘Technology and manufacture’, in J Joy and J Farley (eds), The Snettisham Treasure (London: British Museum Research Publication 225).
Northover P 1992, ‘Materials issues in the Celtic coinage’, in M Mays (ed), Celtic coinage: Britain and beyond (Oxford: BAR BS 222), 235-99.
Northover P 1995, ‘The technology of metalwork: bronze and gold’, in M Green (ed) The Celtic World (London), 285-309.
Norwich Castle Museum and Art Gallery 2018. The south-west Norfolk torc. http://www.rnrm.org.uk/saga_bu/ncm_budica/so_/so_swnt_det.html [accessed 26 February 2018].
Owles E 1969, ‘The Ipswich gold torcs’, Antiquity 43, 208-12.
Owles E 1971, ‘The sixth Ipswich torc’ Antiquity 45, 180.
Painter K S 1969-70, ‘An Iron Age gold-alloy torc from Glascote, Tamworth, Staffs’, Transactions of the South Staffordshire Archaeological and Historical Society 11, 1-6.
Sealey P R 1979, ‘The later history of Icenian electrum torcs’, Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 49, 165–78.
Spratling M G 1972, Southern British decorated bronzes of the late pre-Roman Iron Age, unpublished PhD thesis (University of London).
Stead I M 1991, ‘The Snettisham treasure: Excavations in 1990’, Antiquity 65, 447–64.
Whitaker T D 1816, Leodis and Elmete.
Bayley J 1992, ‘Goldworking in Britain from Iron Age to medieval times’, Interdisciplinary Science Review 17(4), 314-21.
Brailsford J W 1951, ‘The Snettisham Treasure’, British Museum Quarterly 16(3), 79-80.
Brailsford J W 1971, ‘The Sedgeford Torc’, British Museum Quarterly 35(1), 16-19.
Brailsford J W and Stapley J E 1972, ‘The Ipswich Torcs’, Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 38, 219-34.
Bushe Fox J P 1915, Excavations at Hengistbury Head, Hampshire in 1911-12 (Oxford).
Clarke R R 1951, ‘A Celtic torc terminal from North Creake, Norfolk’, Archaeological Journal 106, 59–61.
Clarke R R 1954, ‘The early Iron Age treasure from Snettisham, Norfolk’, Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 20, 27–86.
Crawford H S 1925, ‘The engraved bone objects found at Lough Crew, Co. Meath, in 1865’, Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland 15(1), 15-29.
Farley J 2017, Portable Antiquities Scheme: WMID-FD08D9. https://finds.org.uk/database/artefacts/record/id/820219 [accessed 9 May 2017]
Farley J, Gilmore T, Sutherland Z and Nicolls A 2018, ‘The Leekfrith torcs’ Transactions Staffordshire Archaeological and Historical Society 50, 110–114.
Feachem R W 1958, ‘The ‘Cairnmuir’ hoard from Netherurd, Peebleshire’, Proceedings Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 91, 112–16.
Fox C 1945, A find of the Early Iron Age from Llyn Cerrig Bach, Anglesey: Interim Report (Cardiff).
Garrow D, Gosden C, Hill J D and Bronk Ramsey C 2009, ‘Dating Celtic Art: a major radiocarbon dating programme of Iron Age and early Roman metalwork in Britain , Archaeological Journal 166, 79-123.
Gwilt A, Kucharski K, Silvester R and Davis M 2005, ‘A Late Bronze Age hoard from Trevalyn Farm, Rossett, Wrexham’, Studia Celtica 39, 27-61.
Hautenauve H 1999, ‘Les torques tubulaires de Snettisham. Importation continentale ou production insulaire?’, Lunala, Archaeologia Protohistorica 7, 89–100.
Hautenauve H 2005, Les torcs d’or du second Âge du Fer en Europe: techniques, typologie et symbolique (Rennes).
Hawkes C F C 1936, ‘The Needwood Forest torc’, British Museum Quarterly 11(1), 3-4.
Hawkes C F C 1940, ‘An Iron Age torc from Spettisbury Rings, Dorset’, Archaeological Journal 97, 112-14.
Hill J D 2004, Portable Antiquities Scheme: PAS-F070D5. https://finds.org.uk/database/artefacts/record/id/508203 [accessed 9 May 2017].
Hill J D 2005, Portable Antiquities Scheme: DENO-4B33B7. https://finds.org.uk/database/artefacts/record/id/751306 [accessed 9 May 2017].
Hunter F 2007, ‘Artefacts, regions and identities in the northern British Iron Age’, in C Haselgrove and T Moore (eds), The later Iron Age in Britain and beyond (Oxford), 286-96.
Hunter F 2010, ‘A unique Iron Age gold hoard found near Stirling’, PAST: Newsletter of the Prehistoric Society 65, 3–5.
Hunter F 2014, ‘Auldearn’, Discovery and Excavation in Scotland 15, 97.
Hunter F 2018, ‘The Blair Drummond (UK) hoard: Regional styles and international connections in the later Iron Age’, in R Schwab, P-Y Milcent, B Armbruster and E Pernicka (eds), Early Iron Age gold in Celtic Europe: Science, technology and archaeometry. Proceedings of the International Congress held in Toulouse, France, 11-14 March 2015 (Rahden), 431-40.
Hutcheson N 2007, ‘An archaeological investigation of later Iron Age Norfolk: Analysing hoarding patterns across the landscape’, in C Haselgrove and T Moore (eds), The later Iron Age in Britain and beyond (Oxford), 358-370.
Jope M 2000, Early Celtic Art in the British Isles (Oxford).
Joy J 2010, Portable Antiquities Scheme: SWYOR-CFE7F7. https://finds.org.uk/database/artefacts/record/id/392736 [accessed 1 September 2019].
Joy J 2016, ‘Hoards as collections: Re-examining the Snettisham Iron Age hoards from the perspective of collecting practice’, World Archaeology 82(2), 239–53.
Joy J 2018, ‘Snettisham: Shining new light on old treasure’, Jewellery History Today 31, 3-5.
Katori M, Io T and Ibusr K 2006, Kinko no dento giho [A manual of traditional gold/metal work] (Tokyo).
La Niece S, Farley J, Meeks N and Joy J 2018, ‘Gold in Iron Age Britain’, in R Schwab, P-Y Milcent, B Armbruster and E Pernicka (eds), Early Iron Age gold in Celtic Europe: Science, technology and archaeometry. Proceedings of the International Congress held in Toulouse, France, 11-14 March 2015 (Rahden), 407-30.
Longworth I 1992, ‘Snettisham revisited’, International Journal of Cultural Property 1(2), 333–42.
Macdonald P 2007, Llyn Cerrig Bach: a study of the copper alloy artefacts from the insular La Tène assemblage (Cardiff).
Machling T and Williamson R 2016, ‘The Netherurd torc terminal – insights into torc technology’, PAST: Newsletter of the Prehistoric Society 84, 3–5.
Machling T and Williamson R 2018, ‘“Up Close and Personal”: The later Iron Age torcs from Newark, Nottinghamshire and Netherurd, Peeblesshire’, Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 84, 387-405.
Machling T and Williamson R 2019, ‘“Cut and shuts”: The reworking of Iron Age gold torus torcs’, Later Prehistoric Finds Group Newsletter 13, 4-7.
Machling T and Williamson R forthcoming, ‘“Damn clever metal bashers”: The thoughts and insights of 21st century goldsmiths, silversmiths and jewellers regarding Iron Age gold torus torcs’, in C Gosden, H Chittock, C Nimura and P Hommel (eds), Art in the Eurasian Iron Age: Context, connections, and scale. (Oxford).
Maryon H 1944, ‘The Bawsey torc’, Antiquaries Journal 24, 149-51.
Meeks N, Mongiatti A and Joy J 2014, ‘Precious metal torcs from the Iron Age Snettisham treasure: Metallurgy and analysis’, in E Pernicka and R Schwab (eds), Under the Volcano: Proceedings of the international symposium on the metallurgy of the European Iron Age (Rahden), 135–56.
Meeks N, Mongiatti A, O’Flynn D and Hook D, with contributions from Fenn J forthcoming, ‘Technology and manufacture’, in J Joy and J Farley (eds), The Snettisham Treasure (London: British Museum Research Publication 225).
Northover P 1992, ‘Materials issues in the Celtic coinage’, in M Mays (ed), Celtic coinage: Britain and beyond (Oxford: BAR BS 222), 235-99.
Northover P 1995, ‘The technology of metalwork: bronze and gold’, in M Green (ed) The Celtic World (London), 285-309.
Norwich Castle Museum and Art Gallery 2018. The south-west Norfolk torc. http://www.rnrm.org.uk/saga_bu/ncm_budica/so_/so_swnt_det.html [accessed 26 February 2018].
Owles E 1969, ‘The Ipswich gold torcs’, Antiquity 43, 208-12.
Owles E 1971, ‘The sixth Ipswich torc’ Antiquity 45, 180.
Painter K S 1969-70, ‘An Iron Age gold-alloy torc from Glascote, Tamworth, Staffs’, Transactions of the South Staffordshire Archaeological and Historical Society 11, 1-6.
Sealey P R 1979, ‘The later history of Icenian electrum torcs’, Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 49, 165–78.
Spratling M G 1972, Southern British decorated bronzes of the late pre-Roman Iron Age, unpublished PhD thesis (University of London).
Stead I M 1991, ‘The Snettisham treasure: Excavations in 1990’, Antiquity 65, 447–64.
Whitaker T D 1816, Leodis and Elmete.
How to Cite
Investigating the manufacturing technology of later Iron Age torus torcs. (2022). Historical Metallurgy, 52(2), 83-95. https://hmsjournal.org/index.php/home/article/view/27
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