Late Bronze Age (Colchian) copper production in the Lechkhumi region
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Published
Jan 1, 2022
Abstract
Two reconnaissance expeditions from the Georgian National Museum, in 2013 and 2014, established that the Lechkhumi Caucasian mountain region was exploited for copper during the late Bronze Age. This region is also central to the legendary late Bronze Age visits to Colchis (western Georgia) by Jason and the Argonauts, mentioned in Homer’s Odyssey and recounted in more detail by Apollonius of Rhodes. In 2016-2018 exploratory work plus more detailed archaeological, analytical and geological investigations at the Dogurashi group of sites north-east of Tsageri showed these as being active during the 13th-9th centuries BC. This group of three Dogurashi sites is being investigated as is the associated ore extraction. Previously this industry was known only from chance discoveries of metalwork hoards which included broken-up copper ingots, smaller copper alloy cakes and finished artefacts.
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References
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Craddock P 1995, Early metal mining and production (Edinburgh).
Erb-Satullo N, Gilmour B J J and Khakhutaishvili N 2014, ‘Late Bronze and Early Iron Age copper smelting technologies in the South Caucasus: the view from ancient Colchis c.1500-600 BC’, Journal of Archaeological Science 49, 147-159.
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Gilmour B, Cox M, Erb-Satullo N, Khakhutaishvili N and Pollard M forthcoming,‘Ancient Colchis and the origins of iron: Interim results from recent field survey work in Guria, western Georgia’, in N Sekunda (ed), Wonders lost and found: papers in honour of Michael Vickers (Oxford).
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Hauptmann A 2007, The archaeometallurgy of copper: Evidence from Faynan, Jordan (Berlin).
Ivanitski T V and Vezirishvili E K 1954, Geology and mineralization of the Rtskhmeluri ore field and Lentekhi mineralization (Kvemo Svaneti); Report for Institute of Geology and Mineralogy of the Georgian SSR Academy of Sciences. Unpublished report 8904, Geological Funds of Georgian Agency on Mineral Resources [in Russian]. See https://nam-geofund.archival-services.gov.ge/geofond/item_detailed/15666.
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Khakhutaishvili D 2009, The manufacture of iron in ancient Colchis (Oxford).
Mamardashvili G 2010, Public and family life in the population of Lechkhumi. Unpublished PhD thesis synopsis, Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University [in Georgian].
Nadiradze V R, Alibegashvili B A, Kakhadze E I and Otkhmezuri Z V 1973, Formation conditions and distribution regularities of endogenous ore formations of Racha and Svaneti (Tbilisi) [in Russian].
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Rezesidze N, Sulava N, Gilmour B, Beridze T and Chagelishvili R 2018, ‘Prehistoric metallurgy in mountainous Colchis (Lechkhumi)’, Bulletin of the Georgian National Academy of Sciences 12(1), 183-187.
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Sakharova L 1976, Bronze Hoards from Lechkhumi (Tbilisi) [in Georgian].
Sulava N 2001a,‘Letschchumi – eine bedeutendste frühe Metallurgie-Region in der Kolchis’, in I Gambashidze, A Hauptmann, R Slotta and Ü Yalҫin (eds), GEORGIEN, Schätze aus dem Land des goldenen Vlies (Bochum), 186-187.
Sulava N 2001b, ‘Gussform’, in I Gambashidze, A Hauptmann, R Slotta and Ü Yalҫin (eds), GEORGIEN, Schätze aus dem Land des goldenen Vlies (Bochum), 375.
Sulava N 2003, ‘On a small mould discovered in Lechkhumi’, Dziebani 10, 31-37 [in Georgian].
Sulava N 2008,‘On a small mould discovered in mountainous Colchis’, in Ü Yalçin, H Özbal and A G Paşamehmetoğlu (eds), Ancient mining in Turkey and the Eastern Mediterranean (AMITEM 2008) (Ankara), 299-305.
Sulava N 2014, ‘The prehistoric metallurgical exhibits of Tsageri Historical Museum’, Proceedings of the Tsageri History Museum 1, 33-35 [in Georgian].
Sulava N, Aghapishvili P, Bakhradze I, Chagelishvili R, Kopaliani N, Koridze I, Mamardashvili G and Pataridze M 2012,Varlam Makharoblidze Tsageri History Museum (Tbilisi) [in Georgian and English].
Togonidze G 1933, Preliminary report on the works conducted in 1933 by the Opitara geological exploration party. Unpublished report 1093, Geological Funds of eorgian Agency on Mineral Resources [in Russian]. See https://nam-geofund.archival-services.gov.ge/geofond/item_detailed/775
Topuria P A 1938, About the slags from Racha and Lechkhumi: Report. Unpublished report 2087, Geological Funds of Georgian Agency on Mineral Resources [in Russian]. See https://namgeofund.archival-services.gov.ge/geofond/item_detailed/1628/0.
Topuria P A 1938, ‘About the slags from Racha and Lechkhumi: Report’, Geological Funds of Georgian Agency on Mineral Resources 2087 [in Russian].
Tvalchrelidze GA 1961, Endogenous metallogeny of Georgia (Moscow) [in Russian].
[Anon] 1970, Useful minerals map of GSSR, 1970: Explanatory note (Tbilisi) [in Russian].
[Anon] 1974, Geology of the USSR, Vol 10, Georgian SSR, mineral resources (Moscow) [in Russian].
Bartholomeev G K 1907, Opitara ore deposits. Unpublished report 1298, Geological Funds of Georgian Agency on Mineral Resources, [in Russian]. See https://nam-geofund.archival-services.gov.ge/geofond/item_detailed/941.
Beridze M A 1983, Geosynclinal volcanogenic-sedimentary lithogenesis on the example of Early Alpine formations of the Southern Slope of the Great Caucasus (Tbilisi: Proceedings of Al Janelidze Institute of Geology of the Academy of Sciences of Georgian SSR) [in Russian].
Bezhanishvili N M 1933, Brief summary on the examination of the copper ore deposit in the vicinity of v. Opitara (Tsageri District). Unpublished report 1091, Geological Funds of Georgian Agency on Mineral Resources [in Russian]. See https://nam-geofund.archival-services.gov.ge/geofond/item_detailed/774.
Chernykh E N 1992, Ancient metallurgy in the USSR: The early metal age [trans S Wright] (Cambridge).
Craddock P 1995, Early metal mining and production (Edinburgh).
Erb-Satullo N, Gilmour B J J and Khakhutaishvili N 2014, ‘Late Bronze and Early Iron Age copper smelting technologies in the South Caucasus: the view from ancient Colchis c.1500-600 BC’, Journal of Archaeological Science 49, 147-159.
Geguchadze S, Gvineria S, Kalinina E and Beradze R 1976, Explanatory note for the 1:50 000 scale geological map of the Racha-Svaneti ore district, P D Gamkrelidze and G A Tvalchrelidze (eds) (Tbilisi) [in Russian].
Ghambashidze D 1919, The mineral resources of Georgia and Caucasia (London).
Gilmour B, Cox M, Erb-Satullo N, Khakhutaishvili N and Pollard M forthcoming,‘Ancient Colchis and the origins of iron: Interim results from recent field survey work in Guria, western Georgia’, in N Sekunda (ed), Wonders lost and found: papers in honour of Michael Vickers (Oxford).
Gobejishvili G 1962,The results of archaeological expedition of the southern slope of the middle of the [Greater] Caucasus in the Bronze Age in 1961’, Summary of reports (Tbilisi) [in Georgian].
Hauptmann A 2007, The archaeometallurgy of copper: Evidence from Faynan, Jordan (Berlin).
Ivanitski T V and Vezirishvili E K 1954, Geology and mineralization of the Rtskhmeluri ore field and Lentekhi mineralization (Kvemo Svaneti); Report for Institute of Geology and Mineralogy of the Georgian SSR Academy of Sciences. Unpublished report 8904, Geological Funds of Georgian Agency on Mineral Resources [in Russian]. See https://nam-geofund.archival-services.gov.ge/geofond/item_detailed/15666.
Janelidze T B 1965, Middle Jurassic volcanism of the Southern Slope of the Great Caucasus Geosyncline (the area in-between the Enguri-Tskhenistskali rivers). PhD thesis, Geological Institute of Georgian SSR Academy of Sciences, Tbilisi. Unpublished report 11640, Geological Funds of Georgian Agency on Mineral Resources [in Georgian]. See https://nam-geofund.archival-services.gov.ge/geofond/item_detailed/17289/0.
Jessen A A 1935, ‘To the question of the oldest copper metallurgy in the Caucasus’, Izvestija Gosudarstvennoj Akademiiistoriimaterial’nojkul’tury 120, 7-237 [in Russian].
Jones H L (trans) 1917, The Geography of Strabo Vol 1 (London, Loeb classical library).
Kalandadze A 1931, The communal department attitude on the issue of copper ore and other minerals deposits in villages Mekvena and Opitara. Unpublished report 1094, Geological Funds of Georgian Agency on Mineral Resources [in Russian]. See https://namgeofund.archival-services.gov.ge/geofond/item_detailed/776.
Khakhutaishvili D 2009, The manufacture of iron in ancient Colchis (Oxford).
Mamardashvili G 2010, Public and family life in the population of Lechkhumi. Unpublished PhD thesis synopsis, Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University [in Georgian].
Nadiradze V R, Alibegashvili B A, Kakhadze E I and Otkhmezuri Z V 1973, Formation conditions and distribution regularities of endogenous ore formations of Racha and Svaneti (Tbilisi) [in Russian].
Rayfield D 2012, Edge of Empires: A History of Georgia (London).
Rezesidze N, Sulava N, Gilmour B, Beridze T and Chagelishvili R 2018, ‘Prehistoric metallurgy in mountainous Colchis (Lechkhumi)’, Bulletin of the Georgian National Academy of Sciences 12(1), 183-187.
Sagona A 2018, The archaeology of the Caucasus from earliest settlements to the Iron Age (Cambridge).
Sakharova L S 1966, The Late Bronze Culture of the Tskhenistskali River Gorge. Synopsis to MSc thesis, Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University [in Georgian].
Sakharova L 1976, Bronze Hoards from Lechkhumi (Tbilisi) [in Georgian].
Sulava N 2001a,‘Letschchumi – eine bedeutendste frühe Metallurgie-Region in der Kolchis’, in I Gambashidze, A Hauptmann, R Slotta and Ü Yalҫin (eds), GEORGIEN, Schätze aus dem Land des goldenen Vlies (Bochum), 186-187.
Sulava N 2001b, ‘Gussform’, in I Gambashidze, A Hauptmann, R Slotta and Ü Yalҫin (eds), GEORGIEN, Schätze aus dem Land des goldenen Vlies (Bochum), 375.
Sulava N 2003, ‘On a small mould discovered in Lechkhumi’, Dziebani 10, 31-37 [in Georgian].
Sulava N 2008,‘On a small mould discovered in mountainous Colchis’, in Ü Yalçin, H Özbal and A G Paşamehmetoğlu (eds), Ancient mining in Turkey and the Eastern Mediterranean (AMITEM 2008) (Ankara), 299-305.
Sulava N 2014, ‘The prehistoric metallurgical exhibits of Tsageri Historical Museum’, Proceedings of the Tsageri History Museum 1, 33-35 [in Georgian].
Sulava N, Aghapishvili P, Bakhradze I, Chagelishvili R, Kopaliani N, Koridze I, Mamardashvili G and Pataridze M 2012,Varlam Makharoblidze Tsageri History Museum (Tbilisi) [in Georgian and English].
Togonidze G 1933, Preliminary report on the works conducted in 1933 by the Opitara geological exploration party. Unpublished report 1093, Geological Funds of eorgian Agency on Mineral Resources [in Russian]. See https://nam-geofund.archival-services.gov.ge/geofond/item_detailed/775
Topuria P A 1938, About the slags from Racha and Lechkhumi: Report. Unpublished report 2087, Geological Funds of Georgian Agency on Mineral Resources [in Russian]. See https://namgeofund.archival-services.gov.ge/geofond/item_detailed/1628/0.
Topuria P A 1938, ‘About the slags from Racha and Lechkhumi: Report’, Geological Funds of Georgian Agency on Mineral Resources 2087 [in Russian].
Tvalchrelidze GA 1961, Endogenous metallogeny of Georgia (Moscow) [in Russian].
How to Cite
Late Bronze Age (Colchian) copper production in the Lechkhumi region. (2022). Historical Metallurgy, 52(2), 59-72. https://hmsjournal.org/index.php/home/article/view/29
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How to Cite
Late Bronze Age (Colchian) copper production in the Lechkhumi region. (2022). Historical Metallurgy, 52(2), 59-72. https://hmsjournal.org/index.php/home/article/view/29