Wrought and quenched, and cast high-tin bronzes in Kerala State, India
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Published
January 27, 2022
Abstract
Binary high-tinbronze alloys have been recorded in SE Asian antiquity, and it had been reasonable to regard known Indian examples as imports from tin-rich SE Asia due to the scarcity of tin in India. However, this paper puts forth new evidence of ancient and surviving high-tin bronze working in the Indian subcontinent. lt challenges the above assumption and indicates that the indigenous development of high-tin bronze working, and exploitation of the sparse tin deposits in ancient India, cannot be ruled out. Surviving traditions from Kerala in S lndia are documented of the manufacture of vessels and instruments of wrought and quenched high-tin bronze, and mirrors of cast high-tin bronze. New metallurgical evidence is presented for the continuous use of artefacts of high-tin bronze in the subcontinent from the 1st millennium BC to the present day, particularly in South India, which is corroborated by literary and iconographic evidence from the historical period.
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References
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Southeast Asian Studies, 0cc Pap 16).
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Hanson D and Pell-Wallpole W T 1951, Chill-cast Tin Bronzes (London).
Heine R W, Loper C R and Rosenthal. P C 1976, Principles of Meta! Casting (New Delhi).
Hultzsch E (ed) 1929, South Indian Inscriptions, Miscellaneous inscriptions from the Tamil country. Vol. 3(1) (Madras).
Jain J and Aggrawala A 1989, National Handicrafts and Handlooms (Ahmedabad).
Kangle R P 1972, Kautilya Arthasastra (Delhi).
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Geology and Mineral Resources of South East Asia (Bangkok), 345-50.
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Rajpitak Wand Seeley N J 1979, 'The bronze bowls of Ban Don Ta Phet Thailand: an enigma of prehistoric metallurgy', World Archaeology 11, 26-31.
Rao B and Krishnasastri H ( eds) 1929, South Indian Inscriptions, Miscellaneous inscriptions from the Tamil country Val 3(3) (Madras).
Ray PC 1956, History of Hindu Chemistry of the Ancient and Medieval Periods (Calcutta).
Rea A 1915, Catalogue of Prehistoric Antiquities from Adichanallur and Perumbair (Madras).
Reeves M R, Bowden J S, and Cuthbertson J W 1953, 'Tin Bronzes. A report on the microstructures of those containing 15-28 per cent of tin', Metal Industry (January 16), 49-51.
Sankar R 1986, 'How old are the mine workings of Ingaldhal', Journal of the Geological Society of India 33(1), 64-70.
Sastry V V K, Purushottam D, Raa G R, Subbiah K V, Raa Sand Gayathri P 1983, 'Chemical composition of some coins of the Satavahana period', Journal of Archaeological Chemistry 1(1), 21-9.
Scott D 1991, Metallography and Microstructure of Ancient and Historic Metals (Singapore).
Smith C S 1973, 'Bronze technology in the East: a metallurgical study of early Thai bronzes, with some speculations on the cultural transmission of
technology', in Changing Perspectives in the History of Science: Essays in Honour of Joseph Needham (London), 21-32.
Srinivasa Rao G (ed) 1952, South Indian Inscriptions, Vol 13(3) (Madras).
Srinivasan S 1994, 'High-tin bronze bowl making in Kerala, South India-and its archaeological implications', in A Parpola and P Koskikallio (eds), South Asian Archaeology 1993. Proceedings of the Twelfth International Conference of the European Association of South Asian Archaeologists held in Helsinki, 5-9 July 1993, Vol 2 (Helsinki), 695-706.
Sudhir T S 1991, 'Metallic Marvels' - an article in the Indian Sunday Times on metal mirrors from Kerala at an exhibition in Pragati Maidan, about September 1991.
Susilawom S 1992, 'Ban Bu: Bronzesmith House', Muang Boran Journal 18(3), 54.
Thomas A 1991, 'Aranmula Kannady: The enigmatic mirror from Kerala', The lndia Magazine l l(Nov), 50-59.
Thurston E and Rangachari K 1909, Castes and Tribes of Southern lndia (Madras).
Tamil Lexicon 1926-1939, (Madras).
Vijayakumar M, Ganorkar M C, Rao V P, Gayathri P 1987, 'A study of Vishnukundin coins', Bulletin of Material Science 9(2), 137-47.
Wheeler Tand Maddin R 1976, 'The techniques of the early Thai metalsmith', Expedition 18(4), 38-47.
Zhu Shoukang and He Tangkun 1993, 'Studies of ancient Chinese mirrors and other bronze artefacts', in S La Niece and P Craddock (eds), Meta! Plating and Patination - Cultural, Technical and Historical Developments (Oxford), 50-62.
Barua B 1937, Barhut, Book 3 - Aspects of life and art (Calcutta).
Bennett A and I C Glover 1992, 'Decorated high-tin bronzes from Thailand's prehistory', in I C Glover (ed), Southeast Asian Archaeology 1990. (Hull), 187-208.
Berkowitz B J and Scattergood R O 1983, Chemistry and Physics of Rapidly Solidified Materials. (Warrendale).
Breeks J W 1873, An account of the primitive tribes and monuments of the Nilgiris (London).
Bronson B 1992, 'Patterns in the early Southeast Asian metals trade', in I C Glover, P Suchitta and J Villiers (eds), Metallurgy, Trade and Urbanism in Early Thailand and Southeast Asia. (Bangkok), 65-116.
Chakrabarti D K 1979, "The problem of tin in lndia', Man and Environment 3, 65-74.
Czuma S J 1985, Kushan sculptures: Images from early India (Cleveland).
Foote R B 1874, "The auriferous rocks of the Dambal hills, Dharwar District' Records of Geological Survey 7, 133-42.
Gazetteer of India 1970, (Bangalore).
Glover I C 1990, Early Trade Between India and Southeast Asia - a Link in the Development of a World Trading System (Hull: University of Hull Centre for
Southeast Asian Studies, 0cc Pap 16).
Goodway M and Conklin H C 1987, 'Quenched high-tin bronze from the Philippines', Archaeomaterials 2( 1), 1-27.
Gupta S P (ed) 1985, Kushana sculptures from Sanghol (] st-Znd century AD). A recent discovery. Vol l (Delhi).
Hanson D and Pell-Wallpole W T 1951, Chill-cast Tin Bronzes (London).
Heine R W, Loper C R and Rosenthal. P C 1976, Principles of Meta! Casting (New Delhi).
Hultzsch E (ed) 1929, South Indian Inscriptions, Miscellaneous inscriptions from the Tamil country. Vol. 3(1) (Madras).
Jain J and Aggrawala A 1989, National Handicrafts and Handlooms (Ahmedabad).
Kangle R P 1972, Kautilya Arthasastra (Delhi).
Keay J 1981, India Discovered ... (Leicester).
Kuppuram G 1986, Imperial Cholas of Karnataka. (Delhi).
Kuppuram G 1989, Ancient Mining, Metallurgy and Meta! Industries in India, Vol 2 (Delhi).
Leshnik L 1974, The Pandukal Complex - South Indian Megalithic Burials (Wiesbaden).
Mallet F R 1874, 'Geological notes of the northem Hazaribagh', Records of the Geological Survey 7, 23-44.
Malroney C 1975, 'Archaeology of ·south lndia - accomplishments and prospects', in B Stein (ed), Essays in South India (Hawaii).
Marshall J 1951, Taxila (Cambridge).
Meeks N D 1986, "Tin-rich surfaces on bronze - some experimental and archaeological considerations', Archaeometry 28(2), 133-62.
Meeks ND 1993a, 'Patination phenomena on Roman and Chinese high-tin bronze mirrors and other artefacts', in S La Niece and P Craddock (eds), Meta! Plating and Patination - Cultural, Technical and Historical Developments (Oxford), 63-84.
Meeks N D 1993b, 'Surface characterization of tinned bronze, high-tin bronze, tinned iron and arsenical bronze', in S La Niece and P Craddock (eds), Metal Plating and Patination - Cultural, Technical and Historical Developments (Oxford), 247-75.
Meeks N D 1995, 'A technical study of Roman mirrors', in S T A M Mols et al (eds), Acta of the 12th International Congress on Ancient Bronzes, Nijmegen
1992 (Nijmegen), 179-93.
Mukherjee N K and Dhaneshwar R 1978, "The position of tin prospects in India', in P Nutalaya (ed), Proceedings of the Third Regional Conference on
Geology and Mineral Resources of South East Asia (Bangkok), 345-50.
Mukherjee M 1978, Meta! craftsmen of India (Calcutta).
Needham J 1962, Science and Civilization in China Vol 4(1) (Cambridge).
Paramasivan S 1941, 'lnvestigations on ancient Indian metallurgy; A pre-historic bronze bowl', Proceedings of Indian Academy of Sciences 13(2), Sec A, 87-90.
Porter D A and Easterling K E 1981, Phase Transformations in Metals and Alloys.
Radhakrishna B P and Curtis L C 1991, Gold, the Indian Scene (Bangalore).
Rajpitak W 1983, The Development of Copper-Alloy Metallurgy in Thailand in the pre-Buddhist period with special reference to high-tin bronze. Unpublished PhD thesis (University of London, Institute of Archaeology).
Rajpitak Wand Seeley N J 1979, 'The bronze bowls of Ban Don Ta Phet Thailand: an enigma of prehistoric metallurgy', World Archaeology 11, 26-31.
Rao B and Krishnasastri H ( eds) 1929, South Indian Inscriptions, Miscellaneous inscriptions from the Tamil country Val 3(3) (Madras).
Ray PC 1956, History of Hindu Chemistry of the Ancient and Medieval Periods (Calcutta).
Rea A 1915, Catalogue of Prehistoric Antiquities from Adichanallur and Perumbair (Madras).
Reeves M R, Bowden J S, and Cuthbertson J W 1953, 'Tin Bronzes. A report on the microstructures of those containing 15-28 per cent of tin', Metal Industry (January 16), 49-51.
Sankar R 1986, 'How old are the mine workings of Ingaldhal', Journal of the Geological Society of India 33(1), 64-70.
Sastry V V K, Purushottam D, Raa G R, Subbiah K V, Raa Sand Gayathri P 1983, 'Chemical composition of some coins of the Satavahana period', Journal of Archaeological Chemistry 1(1), 21-9.
Scott D 1991, Metallography and Microstructure of Ancient and Historic Metals (Singapore).
Smith C S 1973, 'Bronze technology in the East: a metallurgical study of early Thai bronzes, with some speculations on the cultural transmission of
technology', in Changing Perspectives in the History of Science: Essays in Honour of Joseph Needham (London), 21-32.
Srinivasa Rao G (ed) 1952, South Indian Inscriptions, Vol 13(3) (Madras).
Srinivasan S 1994, 'High-tin bronze bowl making in Kerala, South India-and its archaeological implications', in A Parpola and P Koskikallio (eds), South Asian Archaeology 1993. Proceedings of the Twelfth International Conference of the European Association of South Asian Archaeologists held in Helsinki, 5-9 July 1993, Vol 2 (Helsinki), 695-706.
Sudhir T S 1991, 'Metallic Marvels' - an article in the Indian Sunday Times on metal mirrors from Kerala at an exhibition in Pragati Maidan, about September 1991.
Susilawom S 1992, 'Ban Bu: Bronzesmith House', Muang Boran Journal 18(3), 54.
Thomas A 1991, 'Aranmula Kannady: The enigmatic mirror from Kerala', The lndia Magazine l l(Nov), 50-59.
Thurston E and Rangachari K 1909, Castes and Tribes of Southern lndia (Madras).
Tamil Lexicon 1926-1939, (Madras).
Vijayakumar M, Ganorkar M C, Rao V P, Gayathri P 1987, 'A study of Vishnukundin coins', Bulletin of Material Science 9(2), 137-47.
Wheeler Tand Maddin R 1976, 'The techniques of the early Thai metalsmith', Expedition 18(4), 38-47.
Zhu Shoukang and He Tangkun 1993, 'Studies of ancient Chinese mirrors and other bronze artefacts', in S La Niece and P Craddock (eds), Meta! Plating and Patination - Cultural, Technical and Historical Developments (Oxford), 50-62.
How to Cite
Srinivasan, S., & Glover, I. (2022). Wrought and quenched, and cast high-tin bronzes in Kerala State, India. Historical Metallurgy, 29(2), 69-88. https://hmsjournal.org/index.php/home/article/view/441
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