Sweat, Fire and Brimstone: Pre-treatment of copper ore and the effects on smelting techniques
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Published
Jan 28, 2022
Abstract
Full scale experimental reconstruction of beneficiation and roasting techniques based on evidence from a Bronze Age context in the eastem Alps suggests that these techniques are important in considering subsequent smelting technology. Results are based on the consideration of chemical analyses of ore samples at various stages of preparation prior to smelting. Implications for early discovery mechanisms are also considered in light of the evidence presented in this study.
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References
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Biswas A and Davenport WG 1976, Extractive metallurgy of Copper (Oxford).
Bohne C 1968, 'Uber die Kupferverhuttung der Bronzezeit', Archaeologia Austriaca 44, 49-60.
Budd PD, Gale D, Pollard AM, Thomas R G, and Williams PA 1992, 'The early development of metallurgy in the British Isles', Antiquity 66, 667-686.
Charles JA 1967, 'Early arsenical bronzes -A metallurgical view', American Journal of Archaeology 71, 1-20.
Charles JA 1985, 'Determinative mineralogy and the origins of metallurgy', in PT Craddock and M J Hughes (eds), Furnaces and smelting technology in Antiquity (London: BM 0cc Pap 48), 21-28.
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Pittioni R 1952, 'Prehistoric Copper-mining in Austria: Problems and facts', Institute of Archaeology (UCL) Annual Report 10, 16-43.
Pollard A M, Thomas R G and Williams P A 1991, 'Some experiments concerning the smelting of arsenical copper', in P Budd et al (eds), Archaeological Sciences 1989 (Oxford), 169-174.
Presslinger H, Walach G, Eibner C, 1988 Bronzezeitl. Verhüttungsanlagen zur Kupferzeugung im den Ostalpen. Bergund hüttenmännische Monatshefte 133, 338-344.
Rostoker W, Pigott V C and Dvorjak J R 1989, 'Direct reduction to copper metal by Oxide-Sulphide and Mineral interaction', Archaeomaterials 3, 69-87.
Rothenberg B 1990, The ancient metallurgy of copper: Researches in the Arabah 1959-1954 (London).
Ruddle R W 1953, The physical chemistry of copper smelting (London).
Shimada I and Merkel J F 1991, 'Copper-alloy metallurgy in ancient Peru', Scientific American 265, 80-86.
Sperl G 1980, 'Metallographic investigation of Bronze Age Copper', Metals Technology, 212-217.
Tylecote R F 1982, 'Smelting Copper ore from Rudna Glava, Yugoslavia', Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 48, 459-465.
Tylecote R F 1987, The Early History of Metallurgy in Europe (London).
Tylecote R F and Boydell P J 1978, 'Experiments on copper smelting based on early furnaces found at Timna', in B Rothenberg (ed), Chalcolithic copper smelting: excavations and experiments (London), 27-49.
Tylecote R F, Ghaznavi HA and Boydell P J 1977, 'Partitioning of trace elements between ores, fluxes, slags and metal during the smelting of copper',
Binford L 1965, 'Archaeological Systematics and the study of cultural process', American Antiquity 31, 203-210.
Biswas A and Davenport WG 1976, Extractive metallurgy of Copper (Oxford).
Bohne C 1968, 'Uber die Kupferverhuttung der Bronzezeit', Archaeologia Austriaca 44, 49-60.
Budd PD, Gale D, Pollard AM, Thomas R G, and Williams PA 1992, 'The early development of metallurgy in the British Isles', Antiquity 66, 667-686.
Charles JA 1967, 'Early arsenical bronzes -A metallurgical view', American Journal of Archaeology 71, 1-20.
Charles JA 1985, 'Determinative mineralogy and the origins of metallurgy', in PT Craddock and M J Hughes (eds), Furnaces and smelting technology in Antiquity (London: BM 0cc Pap 48), 21-28.
Coghlan H 1939, 'Some experiments on the origin of early copper', Man 92, 106-108.
Craddock PT 1989a, 'Copper smelting in Bronze age Britain: Problems and Possibilities', in P Crew and S Crew (eds), Early mining in the in the British Isles (Maentwrog).
Craddock PT 1989b, 'Early mining and Metallurgy', in J Henderson (ed), Scientific Analysis in Archaeology (Oxford: Oxford University Committee for Archaeology Monograph 19), 178-212.
Craddock PT and Meeks N 1987 'Iron in ancient copper', Archaeometry 29(1), 187-204.
Doonan R C P forthcoming, The Bronze Age Copper Smelting Tradition in the Eastern Alps. PhD thesis, University of Sheffield.
Doonan R C P, Klemm S, Ottaway B, Sperl G, Weinek H in press, 'The East Alpine Bronze Age Copper Smelting Process: Evidence from the Ramsau Valley, Eisenerz, Austria', Proceedings of Archaeometry Conference 1994 at METU Ankara, Turkey.
Eibner C and Presslinger H 1987, Montanarchaologie im Paltental. Untersuchungsergegnisse von bronzeitlichen Bergbau und bronzeitlicher Verhuttung (Liezen).
Gale D 1991, 'The Surface Artefact Assemblage for a Prehistoric Copper Mine, Austria', in P Budd et al (eds), Archaeological Sciences 1989 (Oxford), 143-150.
Herdits H 1993, 'Zum Beginn experimental-archäologischer Untersuchungen einer bronzezeitlichen Kupferverhuttungsanlage in Muhlbach, Salzburg', Archaeologia Austriaca 77, 31-38.
Hoover H C and Hoover L H (trans) 1950, Agricola: De re Metallica (New York).
Jenkins DA and Lewis CA 1991, 'Prehistoric Mining for Copper in The Great Orme, Llandudno', in P Budd et al (eds), Archaeological Sciences 1989 (Oxford), 151-161.
Junghans S, Sangmeister E and Schroder M 1968, Kupfer und Bronze Europa: Studien zu den Anfangen der Metallurgie (Berlin).
Klemm S 1992, Fundberichte Österreichs 31, 445.
Klemm S 1993, Fundberichte Österreichs 32, 703-704.
Klemm S 1994, 'Ausgrabungen in der Eisenerzer Ramsau', Archäologie Österreichs 5(2), 28-29.
Klemm S 1995, Paper given at 'Prehistoric copper mining and metallurgy in the Alps', International workshop at the University of Innsbruck, Austria, 4th-8th October 1995.
Moesta H 1986, 'Bronze Age Copper Smelting', lnterdisciplinary Science Reviews 11(1), 73-87.
Merkel J 1985, 'Ore beneficiation during the Late Bronze/Early Iron Age at Timna, Israel', MASCA Journal 3(5), 164-69.
Merkel J F, Shimada 1, Swann C P and Doonan R 1994, 'Pre-Hispanic Copper Alloy Production at Batan Grande, Peru: Interpretation of the analytical Data for Ore Samples', in D Scott and P Meyers (eds), Archaeometry of Pre-Columbian Sites and Artefacts (Los Angeles), 199-227.
Nagamori M and Habashi F 1974, 'Thermodynamic stability of CuSO4, Metallurgical Transactions 5(2), 523-524.
Northover J P 1980, "The analysis of Welsh Bronze Age metalwork', in H N Savory, Guide Catalogue of the Bronze Age Collections (Cardiff), 229-43.
Percy J 1861, Metallurgy Vol 1. Fuel; Fire-clays; Copper; Zinc; Brass (London).
Peters ED 1907, The principles of copper smelting (London).
Photos-Jones E and Jones JE 1994, 'The building and industrial remains at Agrileza, Laurion (4th century BC) and the contribution to the workings at the site', Annual of The British School at Athens 89, 307-358.
Pittioni R 1952, 'Prehistoric Copper-mining in Austria: Problems and facts', Institute of Archaeology (UCL) Annual Report 10, 16-43.
Pollard A M, Thomas R G and Williams P A 1991, 'Some experiments concerning the smelting of arsenical copper', in P Budd et al (eds), Archaeological Sciences 1989 (Oxford), 169-174.
Presslinger H, Walach G, Eibner C, 1988 Bronzezeitl. Verhüttungsanlagen zur Kupferzeugung im den Ostalpen. Bergund hüttenmännische Monatshefte 133, 338-344.
Rostoker W, Pigott V C and Dvorjak J R 1989, 'Direct reduction to copper metal by Oxide-Sulphide and Mineral interaction', Archaeomaterials 3, 69-87.
Rothenberg B 1990, The ancient metallurgy of copper: Researches in the Arabah 1959-1954 (London).
Ruddle R W 1953, The physical chemistry of copper smelting (London).
Shimada I and Merkel J F 1991, 'Copper-alloy metallurgy in ancient Peru', Scientific American 265, 80-86.
Sperl G 1980, 'Metallographic investigation of Bronze Age Copper', Metals Technology, 212-217.
Tylecote R F 1982, 'Smelting Copper ore from Rudna Glava, Yugoslavia', Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 48, 459-465.
Tylecote R F 1987, The Early History of Metallurgy in Europe (London).
Tylecote R F and Boydell P J 1978, 'Experiments on copper smelting based on early furnaces found at Timna', in B Rothenberg (ed), Chalcolithic copper smelting: excavations and experiments (London), 27-49.
Tylecote R F, Ghaznavi HA and Boydell P J 1977, 'Partitioning of trace elements between ores, fluxes, slags and metal during the smelting of copper',
How to Cite
Sweat, Fire and Brimstone: Pre-treatment of copper ore and the effects on smelting techniques. (2022). Historical Metallurgy, 28(2), 84-97. https://hmsjournal.org/index.php/home/article/view/461
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How to Cite
Sweat, Fire and Brimstone: Pre-treatment of copper ore and the effects on smelting techniques. (2022). Historical Metallurgy, 28(2), 84-97. https://hmsjournal.org/index.php/home/article/view/461