‘Wolf rahm’: archaeological evidence for the veracity of an old term
##plugins.themes.bootstrap3.article.main##
##plugins.themes.bootstrap3.article.sidebar##
Published
Sep 15, 2021
Abstract
The medieval tin smelting site at Brownie Cross, Devon, lies just 4km from the tungsten deposit of Hemerdon Ball and smelted alluvial ores commonly contaminated by wolframite. The slag is present as fragments of thin sheets, probably scraped from the surface of the tin in the float, the bases of which bear inclusions of tungsten metal, tin oxides, wolframite and hard head. The low-tungsten slags variously comprise spinels, ilmenite, olivine and Fe-cordierite in glass. The high-tungsten slags are glass with an unusual Fe-Mn-Mg tungstate (tungstate A) and commonly show relict emulsion textures, in which the tungsten-rich component shows extreme enrichment of tin with respect to silica. The ability of the tungsten-rich slags to capture tin demontrates the problems faced by medieval smelters in Germany, who named the contaminant ‘Wolf rahm’ (wolf’s spit, foam, froth or dross), implying that the slag devoured tin, like a wolf devouring lambs.
##plugins.themes.bootstrap3.article.details##
Keywords
References
Alderton D H M, 1993, ‘Mineralization associated with the Cornubian granite batholith’, in R A D Pattrick and D Polya (eds), Mineralization in the British Isles (London), 270–354.
Bandy M C and Bandy J A (tr) 1955, De natura fossilium, Translated from the first Latin edition of 1546 (New York: Geological Society of America Special Paper 63).
Bray C and Spooner E T C 1983, ‘Sheeted vein Sn-W mineralization and greisenization associated with economic kaolinization, Goonbarrow china clay pit, St. Austell, Cornwall, England; geologic relationships and geochronology’, Economic Geology 78, 1064-1089.
Chang L L Y 1967, ‘Solid solutions of scheelite with other RIIWO4-type tungstates’, American Mineralogist 52, 427-435.
Chirikure S, Heimann R B and Killick D 2010, ‘The technology of tin smelting in the Rooiberg Valley, Limpopo Province, South Africa, ca. 1650-1850 CE’, Journal of Archaeological Science 37, 1656-1669.
Dines H G 1956, The metalliferous mining region of south-west England, (London).
Dunkle S E, Craig J R, Rimstidt J D and Lusardi W R 2003, ‘Romarchite, hydroromarchite and abhurite formed during the corrosion of pewter artifacts from the Queen Anne’s Revenge (1718)’, Canadian Mineralogist 41, 659-669.
Farthing D 2002, The mineralogy of tin slags, unpublished PhD thesis, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore.
Grubb P L C 1967, ‘Solid solution relationships between wolframite and scheelite’, American Mineralogist 52, 418-426.
Henckel J 1725, Pyritologia oder Kiess-Historie (Leipzig).
Louis H 1911, The metallurgy of tin (New York).
Luyart J and Luyart F 1783, ‘Analisis quimico del volfram, y examen de un nuevo metal, que entra en su composition’, Extractos de las Juntas Generales Celebradas por la Real Sociedad Bascongada de los Amigos del Pais en la Ciudad de Vitoria pro Setiembre de 1783, 46-88.
Malham A 2010, The classification and interpretation of tin smelting remains from south west England: A study of the microstructure and chemical composition of tin smelting slags from Devon and Cornwall, and the effect of technological developments upon the character of slags, unpublished PhD thesis, University of Bradford.
Malham A, Aylett J, Higgs E and McDonnell J G 2002, ‘Tin smelting slags from Crift Farm, Cornwall, and the effect of changing technology on slag composition’, Historical Metallurgy 36, 84-94.
Miyawaki R, Yokoyama K, Matsubara S, Furuta H, Gomi A, Murakami R 2010, ‘Huanzalaite, MgWO4, a new mineral species from the Huanzala mine, Peru’, Canadian Mineralogist 48, 105-112.
Pryce W 1778, Mineralogia cornubiensis: a treatise on minerals, mines, and mining (London).
Rehren T 2005 ‘The Trewhiddle tungsten bloom’, ITIA Newsletter June 2005, 2-5.
Scheele C W 1781, ‘Tungstens bestånds-delar’, Kongliga Vetenskaps Academiens Nya Handlingar 2, 89-95.
Sisco A G and Smith C S (tr) 1951, Lazarus Ercker’s treatise on ores and assaying, (Chicago).
Taylor S R, Jones A M and Young T 2014, ‘Smelting point: archaeological investigations along the route of the Avon Water Main Renewal, Plympton, Devon 2009’, Proceedings of the Devon Archaeological Society 72, 187-276.
Wallerius J G 1747, Mineralogia, eller Mineralriket (Stockholm).
Young T P 2011, Archaeometallurgical residues from field D1, Brownie Cross, Shaugh Prior, Devon (Avon SWW Pipeline) (GeoArch Report 2011/43).
Young T P and Kearns T 2011, Evaluation of archaeometallurgical residues from sites D1 and D5, Avon SWW pipeline, Devon (GeoArch Report 2010/08).
Bandy M C and Bandy J A (tr) 1955, De natura fossilium, Translated from the first Latin edition of 1546 (New York: Geological Society of America Special Paper 63).
Bray C and Spooner E T C 1983, ‘Sheeted vein Sn-W mineralization and greisenization associated with economic kaolinization, Goonbarrow china clay pit, St. Austell, Cornwall, England; geologic relationships and geochronology’, Economic Geology 78, 1064-1089.
Chang L L Y 1967, ‘Solid solutions of scheelite with other RIIWO4-type tungstates’, American Mineralogist 52, 427-435.
Chirikure S, Heimann R B and Killick D 2010, ‘The technology of tin smelting in the Rooiberg Valley, Limpopo Province, South Africa, ca. 1650-1850 CE’, Journal of Archaeological Science 37, 1656-1669.
Dines H G 1956, The metalliferous mining region of south-west England, (London).
Dunkle S E, Craig J R, Rimstidt J D and Lusardi W R 2003, ‘Romarchite, hydroromarchite and abhurite formed during the corrosion of pewter artifacts from the Queen Anne’s Revenge (1718)’, Canadian Mineralogist 41, 659-669.
Farthing D 2002, The mineralogy of tin slags, unpublished PhD thesis, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore.
Grubb P L C 1967, ‘Solid solution relationships between wolframite and scheelite’, American Mineralogist 52, 418-426.
Henckel J 1725, Pyritologia oder Kiess-Historie (Leipzig).
Louis H 1911, The metallurgy of tin (New York).
Luyart J and Luyart F 1783, ‘Analisis quimico del volfram, y examen de un nuevo metal, que entra en su composition’, Extractos de las Juntas Generales Celebradas por la Real Sociedad Bascongada de los Amigos del Pais en la Ciudad de Vitoria pro Setiembre de 1783, 46-88.
Malham A 2010, The classification and interpretation of tin smelting remains from south west England: A study of the microstructure and chemical composition of tin smelting slags from Devon and Cornwall, and the effect of technological developments upon the character of slags, unpublished PhD thesis, University of Bradford.
Malham A, Aylett J, Higgs E and McDonnell J G 2002, ‘Tin smelting slags from Crift Farm, Cornwall, and the effect of changing technology on slag composition’, Historical Metallurgy 36, 84-94.
Miyawaki R, Yokoyama K, Matsubara S, Furuta H, Gomi A, Murakami R 2010, ‘Huanzalaite, MgWO4, a new mineral species from the Huanzala mine, Peru’, Canadian Mineralogist 48, 105-112.
Pryce W 1778, Mineralogia cornubiensis: a treatise on minerals, mines, and mining (London).
Rehren T 2005 ‘The Trewhiddle tungsten bloom’, ITIA Newsletter June 2005, 2-5.
Scheele C W 1781, ‘Tungstens bestånds-delar’, Kongliga Vetenskaps Academiens Nya Handlingar 2, 89-95.
Sisco A G and Smith C S (tr) 1951, Lazarus Ercker’s treatise on ores and assaying, (Chicago).
Taylor S R, Jones A M and Young T 2014, ‘Smelting point: archaeological investigations along the route of the Avon Water Main Renewal, Plympton, Devon 2009’, Proceedings of the Devon Archaeological Society 72, 187-276.
Wallerius J G 1747, Mineralogia, eller Mineralriket (Stockholm).
Young T P 2011, Archaeometallurgical residues from field D1, Brownie Cross, Shaugh Prior, Devon (Avon SWW Pipeline) (GeoArch Report 2011/43).
Young T P and Kearns T 2011, Evaluation of archaeometallurgical residues from sites D1 and D5, Avon SWW pipeline, Devon (GeoArch Report 2010/08).
How to Cite
‘Wolf rahm’: archaeological evidence for the veracity of an old term. (2021). Historical Metallurgy, 49(2), 96-109. https://hmsjournal.org/index.php/home/article/view/66
Issue
Section
Articles
How to Cite
‘Wolf rahm’: archaeological evidence for the veracity of an old term. (2021). Historical Metallurgy, 49(2), 96-109. https://hmsjournal.org/index.php/home/article/view/66