The management and exploitation of phosphorus in bloomery iron A practitioner’s observations
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Published
Dec 30, 2024
Lee Sauder
Skip Williams
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3920-8565
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3920-8565
Abstract
Phosphorus was a very common alloying element in ancient iron. Though phosphoric iron has been increasingly studied by archaeometallurgists in recent decades, little work has been published on how preindustrial smelters and smiths may have controlled and utilized phosphorus in their iron. This paper briefly summarizes our experience in controlling the phosphorus content of bloom iron. Part one deals with controlling phosphorus levels through various smelting parameters, including the speed, temperature, and length of the smelt, the proper management of slag, and the addition of calcium. Part two discusses the removal of phosphorus after smelting. Part three presents some observations on the positive aspects of working with phosphoric bloom iron.
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Keywords
iron smelting, phosporus, bloomery process
References
Balasubramaniam, R. (2002). Delhi Iron Pillar: new insights. New Delhi: Aryan Books International.
Dillmann, P., & Balasubramaniam, R. (2001). Characterization of ancient Indian iron and entrapped slag inclusions using electron, photon and nuclear microprobes. Bulletin of Materials Science 24, 317–322. doi: 10.1007/BF02704929
Godfrey, E. G. (2007). The technology of ancient and medieval directly reduced phosphoric iron (PhD thesis, University of Bradford).
Kumar, V. & Balasubramanium, R. (2002). On the origin of high phosphorus contents in ancient Indian iron. Metals, Materials and Process 14(1), 1-14. doi: 10.1016/S1471-3918(02)80023-5
Lang, J. & Williams, A. R. (1975). The hardening of iron swords. Journal of Archaeological Science 2, 199–207. doi: 10.1016/0305-4403(75)90057-6
Sauder, L. (2013a). An American bloomery in Sussex. In: D. Dungworth & R. C. P. Doonan (Eds.), Accidental and experimental archaeometallurgy (pp. 69–74). London: The Historical Metallurgy Society (HMS Occasional Publication 7).
Sauder, L. (2013b). Making steel in the “Aristotle furnace’. In: D. Dungworth & R. C. P. Doonan (Eds.), Accidental and experimental archaeometallurgy (pp. 107–110). London: The Historical Metallurgy Society (HMS Occasional Publication 7).
Stepanov, I., Sauder, L., Keen, J., Workman, V. & Eliyahu-Behar, A. (2022). By the hand of the smelter: tracing the impact of decision-making in bloomery iron smelting. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences 14, 80. doi: 10.1007/s12520-022-01516-3
Stewart, J., Charles, J. & Wallach, E. (2000). Iron-phosphorus-carbon system Part 1. Mechanical properties of low carbon iron-phosphorus alloys. Materials Science and Technology 16, 275–282. doi: 10.1179/026708300101507839
Tylecote R. F. (1986). The Prehistory of metallurgy in the British Isles. London: Institute of Metals.
Vike, V. (2016). Refining iron by re-smelting. Retrieved December 12, 2024, from: https://www.khm.uio.no/english/research/projects/langeid/project/iron-steel/resmelt-iron/index.html
Vizcaino, A., McColm, I. J., & McDonnell, J. G. (1997). Phosphorus in the Bloomery Iron Process. Caesaraugusta 73, 237–243.
Wagner, D. (1990). Ancient carburization of iron to steel: a comment. Archeomaterials 4(1), 111–117.
Wilthew, P. (1987). Metallographic examination of medieval knives and shears. In: J. Cowgill, M. De Neergaard & N. Griffiths (Eds.), Knives and scabbards. Medieval finds from excavations in London (pp. 62–74). London: Museum of London.
Dillmann, P., & Balasubramaniam, R. (2001). Characterization of ancient Indian iron and entrapped slag inclusions using electron, photon and nuclear microprobes. Bulletin of Materials Science 24, 317–322. doi: 10.1007/BF02704929
Godfrey, E. G. (2007). The technology of ancient and medieval directly reduced phosphoric iron (PhD thesis, University of Bradford).
Kumar, V. & Balasubramanium, R. (2002). On the origin of high phosphorus contents in ancient Indian iron. Metals, Materials and Process 14(1), 1-14. doi: 10.1016/S1471-3918(02)80023-5
Lang, J. & Williams, A. R. (1975). The hardening of iron swords. Journal of Archaeological Science 2, 199–207. doi: 10.1016/0305-4403(75)90057-6
Sauder, L. (2013a). An American bloomery in Sussex. In: D. Dungworth & R. C. P. Doonan (Eds.), Accidental and experimental archaeometallurgy (pp. 69–74). London: The Historical Metallurgy Society (HMS Occasional Publication 7).
Sauder, L. (2013b). Making steel in the “Aristotle furnace’. In: D. Dungworth & R. C. P. Doonan (Eds.), Accidental and experimental archaeometallurgy (pp. 107–110). London: The Historical Metallurgy Society (HMS Occasional Publication 7).
Stepanov, I., Sauder, L., Keen, J., Workman, V. & Eliyahu-Behar, A. (2022). By the hand of the smelter: tracing the impact of decision-making in bloomery iron smelting. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences 14, 80. doi: 10.1007/s12520-022-01516-3
Stewart, J., Charles, J. & Wallach, E. (2000). Iron-phosphorus-carbon system Part 1. Mechanical properties of low carbon iron-phosphorus alloys. Materials Science and Technology 16, 275–282. doi: 10.1179/026708300101507839
Tylecote R. F. (1986). The Prehistory of metallurgy in the British Isles. London: Institute of Metals.
Vike, V. (2016). Refining iron by re-smelting. Retrieved December 12, 2024, from: https://www.khm.uio.no/english/research/projects/langeid/project/iron-steel/resmelt-iron/index.html
Vizcaino, A., McColm, I. J., & McDonnell, J. G. (1997). Phosphorus in the Bloomery Iron Process. Caesaraugusta 73, 237–243.
Wagner, D. (1990). Ancient carburization of iron to steel: a comment. Archeomaterials 4(1), 111–117.
Wilthew, P. (1987). Metallographic examination of medieval knives and shears. In: J. Cowgill, M. De Neergaard & N. Griffiths (Eds.), Knives and scabbards. Medieval finds from excavations in London (pp. 62–74). London: Museum of London.
How to Cite
The management and exploitation of phosphorus in bloomery iron: A practitioner’s observations. (2024). Historical Metallurgy, 55(1), 3-16. https://doi.org/10.54841/hm.669
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How to Cite
The management and exploitation of phosphorus in bloomery iron: A practitioner’s observations. (2024). Historical Metallurgy, 55(1), 3-16. https://doi.org/10.54841/hm.669