Confirming the cold diffusion bonding of gold in 19th century kundan settings
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Published
May 24, 2025
Stuart Robertson
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5591-369X
Dawn Spencer
https://orcid.org/0009-0007-1404-1400
Francesca Levey
David Williams
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4943-8543
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5591-369X
Dawn Spencer
https://orcid.org/0009-0007-1404-1400
Francesca Levey
David Williams
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4943-8543
Abstract
This paper investigates the microstructural features of Indian gold settings know as kundan using xenon plasma focused ion beam (pFIB), electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) and energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDX). Testing sought to determine the purity of the gold foils in kundan settings and if they form diffusion bonds, by cold-working. Three, 19th century samples of Indian kundan with reliable provenance were analysed. The samples were from the hilts of two Indian daggers given as diplomatic gifts to Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, during his tour of the Indian subcontinent in 1875-6. It was confirmed that diffusion bonding does occur in the cold-worked gold during the kundan process. Work hardening and mechanical condensing also contribute to the mechanical integrity of kundan settings. The settings were found to comprise of near pure gold foils of ~10 µm thickness.
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Keywords
kundan, India, gold, inlay, electron microscopy, foil, dagger, cold-work
References
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medieval Islamic world: Potential and reality, Historical Metallurgy 54, 9–20. doi: 10.54841/hm.661
Darque-Ceretti, E., Felder, E. & Aucouturier, M. (2011). Foil and leaf gilding on cultural artifacts: forming and adhesion, Matéria (Rio de Janeiro) 16(1), 540–559. doi: 10.1590/S1517-70762011000100002
Dube, R. K. (2018). Solid state diffusion bonding of gold: a Sanskrit reference from Vedic literature, Historical Metallurgy 52(2). Retrieved 26 April 2025, from: https://hmsjournal.org/index.php/home/article/view/28.
Fletcher, T. (1890). Practical dental metallurgy. Warrington: Mackie and Co Limited.
Giumlia-Mair, A. (2020). Plating and Surface Treatments on Ancient Metalwork, Advances in Archaeomaterials 1(1), 1–26. doi: 10.1016/j.aia.2020.10.001
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Jellison, J. (1975). Effect of Surface Contamination on the Thermocompression Bondability of Gold, IEEE Transactions on Parts, Hybrids, and Packaging 11(3), 206–211. doi: 10.1109/TPHP.1975.1135065
Kazakov, N. F. (1985). A Theory of Diffusion Bonding. In Kazakov, N. F. (Ed.) Diffusion Bonding of Materials (pp. 17–48). Oxford: Pergamon. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-08-032550-7.50006-0
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Shirzadi, A. A., Assadi, H. & Wallach, E. R. (2001). Interface evolution and bond strength when diffusion bonding materials with stable oxide films, Surface and Interface Analysis 31(7), 609–618. doi: 10.1002/sia.1088
Simons, C., Schräpler, L. & Herklotz, G. (2000). Doped and low-
alloyed gold bonding wires, Gold Bulletin 33(3), 89–96.
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Tylecote, R. F. (1978). The solid phase bonding of gold to metals: Historical and more fundamental aspects, Gold Bulletin 11(3), 74–80. doi: 10.1007/BF03215091
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Untracht, O. (1998). Jewelry Concepts and Technology. London: Robert Hale.
Victoria and Albert Museum (2016). How Was It Made? Crafting a Pair of Traditional Enamelled Earrings with Kundan Set Diamonds [Video]. YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZLvYOTaHEZM
Xu, C., Reents, W., Franey, J., Yaemsiri, J. & Devaney, J. (2010). Creep corrosion of OSP and ImAg PWB finishes. SMT Surface Mount Technology Magazine 25, 12–25.
Zhang, C., Li, H. & Li, M. (2016). Detailed Evolution Mechanism of Interfacial Void Morphology in Diffusion Bonding, Journal of Materials Science & Technology 32(3), 259–264. doi: 10.1016/j.jmst.2015.12.002
Berger, D., Brauns, M., Brügmann, G., Pernicka, E., & Lockhoff, N. (2021). Revealing ancient gold parting with silver and copper isotopes: implications from cementation experiments and for the analysis of gold artefacts, Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences 13(9), 143. doi: 10.1007/s12520-021-01369-2
Cason, C., Pezzato, L., Brunelli, K., Furlan, F. & Dabalà, M. (2017). Effect of the composition and production process parameters on the microstructure, residual stresses, and mechanical and corrosion properties of gold alloys used in industrial jewelry processes, Gold Bulletin 50(3), 259–266. doi: 10.1007/s13404-017-0215-y
Chapman, R. J., Banks, D. A., Styles, M. T., Walshaw, R. D., Piazolo, S., Morgan, D. J., Grimshaw, M. R., Spence-Jones, C. P., Matthews, T. J. & Borovinskaya, O. (2021). Chemical and physical heterogeneity within native gold: implications for the design of gold particle studies, Mineralium Deposita 56(8), 1563–1588. doi: 10.1007/s00126-020-01036-x
Craddock, P. T. (2023). The assay and refining of gold in the post-
medieval Islamic world: Potential and reality, Historical Metallurgy 54, 9–20. doi: 10.54841/hm.661
Darque-Ceretti, E., Felder, E. & Aucouturier, M. (2011). Foil and leaf gilding on cultural artifacts: forming and adhesion, Matéria (Rio de Janeiro) 16(1), 540–559. doi: 10.1590/S1517-70762011000100002
Dube, R. K. (2018). Solid state diffusion bonding of gold: a Sanskrit reference from Vedic literature, Historical Metallurgy 52(2). Retrieved 26 April 2025, from: https://hmsjournal.org/index.php/home/article/view/28.
Fletcher, T. (1890). Practical dental metallurgy. Warrington: Mackie and Co Limited.
Giumlia-Mair, A. (2020). Plating and Surface Treatments on Ancient Metalwork, Advances in Archaeomaterials 1(1), 1–26. doi: 10.1016/j.aia.2020.10.001
Gurunluoglu, R., Gurunluoglu, A. & Piza-Katzer, H. (2003). Review of the “Chirurgia” of Giovanni de Vigo: Estimate of his Position in the History of Surgery, World Journal of Surgery 27(5), 616–623. doi: 10.1007/s00268-003-6819-9
Jellison, J. (1975). Effect of Surface Contamination on the Thermocompression Bondability of Gold, IEEE Transactions on Parts, Hybrids, and Packaging 11(3), 206–211. doi: 10.1109/TPHP.1975.1135065
Kazakov, N. F. (1985). A Theory of Diffusion Bonding. In Kazakov, N. F. (Ed.) Diffusion Bonding of Materials (pp. 17–48). Oxford: Pergamon. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-08-032550-7.50006-0
Knosp, H., Nawaz, M. & Stümke, M. (1981). Dental gold alloys: Composition, properties and applications, Gold Bulletin 14(2), 57–64. doi: 10.1007/BF03214598
Manuel, K. (2004). The Kundan Technique: The Indian Jewellers Unique Artistic Treasure. In Crill, R, Topsfield, A. & Stronge, S. (Eds.) Arts of Mughal India: Studies in Honour of Robert Skelton. London: Victoria and Albert Museum.
Nutting, J. & Nuttall, J. L. (1977). The malleability of gold: An explanation of its unique mode of deformation, Gold Bulletin 10(1), 2–8. doi: 10.1007/BF03216517
Ott, D. & Raub, C. J. (1981). Grain size of gold and gold alloys: A review and some recent developments, Gold Bulletin 14(2), 69–74. doi: 10.1007/BF03214600
Schmidbaur, H. & Cihonski, J. L. (2003). Noble Metals (Chemistry). In Meyers, R. A. (Ed.) Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology (3rd edition, pp. 463–492). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
doi: 10.1016/B0-12-227410-5/00481-6
Scott, D. A. (1991). Metallography and Microstructure of Ancient and Historic Metals. Los Angeles: The Getty Conservation Institute. Retrieved 26 April 2025 from: https://www.getty.edu/conservation/publications_resources/pdf_publications/pdf/metallography.pdf.
Shirzadi, A. A., Assadi, H. & Wallach, E. R. (2001). Interface evolution and bond strength when diffusion bonding materials with stable oxide films, Surface and Interface Analysis 31(7), 609–618. doi: 10.1002/sia.1088
Simons, C., Schräpler, L. & Herklotz, G. (2000). Doped and low-
alloyed gold bonding wires, Gold Bulletin 33(3), 89–96.
doi: 10.1007/BF03215484
Stronge, S., Whalley, J. & Ferrari, A. (2015). Bejewelled Treasures: The Al Thani Collection. London: V&A Publishing.
Tylecote, R. F. (1978). The solid phase bonding of gold to metals: Historical and more fundamental aspects, Gold Bulletin 11(3), 74–80. doi: 10.1007/BF03215091
Untracht, O. (1997). Traditional Jewelry of India. London: Thames and Hudson.
Untracht, O. (1998). Jewelry Concepts and Technology. London: Robert Hale.
Victoria and Albert Museum (2016). How Was It Made? Crafting a Pair of Traditional Enamelled Earrings with Kundan Set Diamonds [Video]. YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZLvYOTaHEZM
Xu, C., Reents, W., Franey, J., Yaemsiri, J. & Devaney, J. (2010). Creep corrosion of OSP and ImAg PWB finishes. SMT Surface Mount Technology Magazine 25, 12–25.
Zhang, C., Li, H. & Li, M. (2016). Detailed Evolution Mechanism of Interfacial Void Morphology in Diffusion Bonding, Journal of Materials Science & Technology 32(3), 259–264. doi: 10.1016/j.jmst.2015.12.002
How to Cite
Robertson, S., Spencer, D., Levey, F., & Williams, D. (2025). Confirming the cold diffusion bonding of gold in 19th century kundan settings. Historical Metallurgy, 55(2), 86-97. https://doi.org/10.54841/hm.678
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How to Cite
Robertson, S., Spencer, D., Levey, F., & Williams, D. (2025). Confirming the cold diffusion bonding of gold in 19th century kundan settings. Historical Metallurgy, 55(2), 86-97. https://doi.org/10.54841/hm.678