Masuleh and its Cultural Landscape: The Role of Iron Mining and Iron Industries in Its Socioeconomic Development
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Published
January 22, 2026
Ali A. Vahdati
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4620-1188
Mostafa Pourali
Behzad Alitalesh
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4620-1188
Mostafa Pourali
Behzad Alitalesh
Abstract
The historic town of Masouleh in Gilan Province, northern Iran, represents a distinctive cultural landscape shaped by the interaction between human settlement and rich natural resources, especially iron ore. This study investigates the geological, archaeological, and historical evidence for iron mining and metallurgy in the Masouleh region and evaluates their role in the town’s socioeconomic development. New fieldwork and laboratory analyses have identified over thirty metallurgical sites within the Masouleh valley and its highland surroundings, yielding slag, tuyères, and fragments of furnace walls that attest to a long tradition of iron smelting. XRF analyses of slag and ores indicate the use of high-grade hematite and magnetite ores, reduced in both bloomery and charcoal-fueled blast furnaces. Comparison with ethnographic and historical records from Qarādāgh and Mazandaran provides insights into the operation of multi-chamber smelting installations at sites such as Kohne Masouleh and Siyapesia. From the Safavid to Qajar periods (16th to early 20th centuries CE), iron extraction, smelting, and blacksmithing underpinned the economy of Masouleh, supplying iron products to regional markets and the royal arsenal. These findings demonstrate that iron metallurgy was central to the technological and economic identity of Masouleh and highlight the need for further interdisciplinary studies combining geology, archaeo- metallurgy, and landscape archaeology to reconstruct the region’s industrial past.
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Keywords
Masuleh, iron mines, blast furnaces, metallurgical sites, sponge iron, iron tools
References
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Beheshti, M. (2017). Masouleh: shahri estesnaei dar Alborz Kouh [Masouleh: An exceptional city in the Alborz Mountains]. In Talebi, F. & Pourali, M. (Eds.) Ketab-e Masouleh 2, (pp. 7–10). Rasht: Farhang Ilia (in Persian).
Böhne, E. (1928). Die Eisenindustrie Masendrans, Stahl und Eisen 48 (45), 1576–1580.
Daneshyar, E. (2017). On Paths in the Cultural Landscape of Masulih, Gilan, Iran, Open House International 42 (4), 90–97. doi:10.1108/OHI-04-2017-B0011
Etemad al-Saltanah, M. H. K. (1889). al-Ma’ather val-Athar. Tehran: Dar al-Taba’a Khaseh Dolati-e Iran (lithographic printing-in Persian).
Etemad al-Saltanah, M. H. K. (1989). Mirat al-Buldan, Volume 2, edited by Abdolhossein Nava’i and Hashem Muhaddis. Tehran: Tehran University Press (in Persian).
Floor, W. (2003). Traditional Crafts in Qajar Iran (1800-1925). Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers.
Fraser, J. B. (1838). A winter’s journey (Tâtar), from Constantinople to Tehran; with travels through various parts of Persia, Vol. 2. London: R. Bentley.
Gmelin, S. G. (2007). Travels through Northern Persia, 1770-1774, translated and annotated by W. Floor. Washington DC: MAGE Publishers.
Hamrang, B. (2012). gamanehzani be manzur-e layenegari-ye shahr-e tarikhi-ye Masouleh [Archaeological soundings for the Stratigraphy of the Historical Town of Masouleh]. Rash: General Directorate of Cultural Heritage of Gilan Province & Masouleh Historical town Cultural Heritage and Tourism Base (in Persian).
Helwing, B. (2021). Patterns of early metallurgy on the Iranian Plateau, from the beginnings to the end of the Bronze Age. In Marro, C. & Stöllner, T. (Eds.) On Salt, Copper and Gold (pp. 201–230). Lyon: MOM Editions. doi:10.4000/books.momeditions.12257
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Mansouri Zaranji, S. (2017). barrasi-ye zamin shenasi-ye ekteshafi-ye andisha-ye felezi dar mantaqe-ye Masouleh, ostan-e Gilan [Exploratory geological study of metallic mineral indices in the Masuleh area, Gilan Province] (Unpublished M.Sc. thesis, Islamic Azad University, Ahar Branch) (in Persian).
Mirza Ebrahim, (1976). safarname-ye Mazandaran, Astarabad va Gilan [Travelogue of Mazandaran, Astarabad and Gilan], edited and introduced by M. Golzari. Tehran: Iranian Culture Foundation Publications (in Persian)
Monteith, C. W. (1833). Journal of a Tour through Azerbidjan and the Shores of the Caspian, Journal of the Royal Geographical Society 3: 1–59. doi:10.2307/1797594
Moqri, A. A. (2007). gozaresh-e barrasi va gamanezani dar Kohne Masouleh [Report of investigation and soundings at Kohneh Masouleh]. In Masouleh Historical town Cultural Heritage and Tourism Base (Ed.) Ketab-e Masouleh 1 (pp. 98–112). Rasht: Farhang Ilia (in Persian)
Mozaeni, M. & Bahrampour, A. (2017). Masouleh, park-ha-ye tamasha [Masouleh, sighting Parks]. In Talebi, F. & Pourali, M. (Eds.), Ketab-e Masouleh 2 (pp. 11–24). Rasht: Farhang Ilia (in Persian)
Navaiyan, M. (2012). felezkari-ye ahan dar Masouleh [Iron Metalworking in Masouleh]. In Hamrang, B. (Ed.) Gamanehzani be manzur-e layenegari-ye shahr-e tarikhi-ye Masouleh [Archaeological soundings for the Stratigraphy of the Historical Town of Masouleh] (pp. 198–226). Rasht: General Directorate of Cultural Heritage, Handicrafts and Tourism of Gilan & Masouleh Historical Town Cultural Heritage Base (in Persian)
Olearius, A. (1669). The voyages and travels of the ambassadors sent by Frederick, Duke of Holstein, to the great Duke of Muscovy and the King of Persia. faithfully renred into English by J. Davies, the second edition corrected. London: Printed for John Starkey, and Thomas Basset, at the Mitre near Temple-Barr, and at the George near St. Dunstans Church in Fleet-Street.
Parcero-Oubiña, C., Criado-Boado, F. & Barreiro, D. (2020). Landscape Archaeology. In Smith, C. (Ed.) Encyclopedia of Global Archaeology (pp. 4379–4388). New York: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-30018-0_264
Peyab Consulting Engineers (2002). Pay-jouei va potansiyel-yabi-ye kansarha-ye felezi-ye Masouleh [Exploration and mineral potential assessment of metallic deposits in the Masuleh area]. (Unpublished technical report, Organization of Industry, Mine and Trade of Gilan Province, Rasht) (in Persian).
Pourali, M. (2016). sarshomari-ye Masouleh [Masouleh census]. Masouleh Heritage Center Office Archive (unpublished report).
Pigott, V. C. (1984). ĀHAN, Encyclopædia Iranica I/6, 624–633; Retrieved June 10, 2025, from: https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ahan-iron/
Pigott, V. C. (1999). A heartland of metallurgy: Neolithic/Chalcolithic metallurgical origins on the Iranian Plateau. In: Hauptmann, A., Pernicka, E., Rehren, T., & Yalçın, Ü. (Eds.) The beginnings of metallurgy. Proceedings of the International Conference “The Beginnings of Metallurgy” (Bochum 1995) (pp. 107–120). Bochum: Deutsches Bergbau-Museum Bochum (Der Anschnitt Beiheft 9).
Rabino, H. L. (1917). Les provinces caspiennes de la Perse: Le Guîlân. Paris: Ernest Leroux.
Robertson, J. (1840). An Account of the Iron Mines of Caradogh, near Tabreez in Persia, and of the Method there practised of producing Malleable-Iron by a single process directly from the Ore. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 14(2), 699–707. doi:10.1017/S0080456800021785
Sharafi Masouleh, F. (2016). ahan va naqsh-e an dar 8 qarne gozashte-ye Masouleh [Iron and its role in the past 8 centuries of Masouleh], Ruzname-ye Masouleh [Masouleh Newspaper] Special Issue 1 (July 10), 3–4 (in Persian).
Tabrizi, M. M. S. (1960). Ma’dan-nameh; A list of Iranian mines from 1240 to 1270, corrected by A. Parvaresh. Tehran: Library documents of the Geological and Mineral Exploration Organization of the country (in Persian)
UNESCO (2007). Masouleh Historical Town. Tentative Lists, UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved October 3, 2025, from https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5204/
Wagner, D. B. (1993). Iron and steel in ancient China. Leiden: E. J. Brill. doi:10.1163/9789004484115
Wulff, H. E. (1966). The Traditional Crafts of Persia: Their Development, Technology, and Influence on Eastern and Western Civilizations. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Bazin, M. (2000). Masula. In Ashraf, A. (Ed.) Encyclopedia Iranica, online edition: Retrieved June 10, 2025, from: http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/masula
Bazin, M. (1980). Le Tâlech, une région ethnique au nord de l’Iran, 2 volumes. Paris: Association pour la Diffusion de la Pensée française (ADPF).
Beheshti, M. (2017). Masouleh: shahri estesnaei dar Alborz Kouh [Masouleh: An exceptional city in the Alborz Mountains]. In Talebi, F. & Pourali, M. (Eds.) Ketab-e Masouleh 2, (pp. 7–10). Rasht: Farhang Ilia (in Persian).
Böhne, E. (1928). Die Eisenindustrie Masendrans, Stahl und Eisen 48 (45), 1576–1580.
Daneshyar, E. (2017). On Paths in the Cultural Landscape of Masulih, Gilan, Iran, Open House International 42 (4), 90–97. doi:10.1108/OHI-04-2017-B0011
Etemad al-Saltanah, M. H. K. (1889). al-Ma’ather val-Athar. Tehran: Dar al-Taba’a Khaseh Dolati-e Iran (lithographic printing-in Persian).
Etemad al-Saltanah, M. H. K. (1989). Mirat al-Buldan, Volume 2, edited by Abdolhossein Nava’i and Hashem Muhaddis. Tehran: Tehran University Press (in Persian).
Floor, W. (2003). Traditional Crafts in Qajar Iran (1800-1925). Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers.
Fraser, J. B. (1838). A winter’s journey (Tâtar), from Constantinople to Tehran; with travels through various parts of Persia, Vol. 2. London: R. Bentley.
Gmelin, S. G. (2007). Travels through Northern Persia, 1770-1774, translated and annotated by W. Floor. Washington DC: MAGE Publishers.
Hamrang, B. (2012). gamanehzani be manzur-e layenegari-ye shahr-e tarikhi-ye Masouleh [Archaeological soundings for the Stratigraphy of the Historical Town of Masouleh]. Rash: General Directorate of Cultural Heritage of Gilan Province & Masouleh Historical town Cultural Heritage and Tourism Base (in Persian).
Helwing, B. (2021). Patterns of early metallurgy on the Iranian Plateau, from the beginnings to the end of the Bronze Age. In Marro, C. & Stöllner, T. (Eds.) On Salt, Copper and Gold (pp. 201–230). Lyon: MOM Editions. doi:10.4000/books.momeditions.12257
Khalatbari Ja’fari, M., Lashni, Z. & Omrani, J. (2016). petrologi-ye tudeha-ye ultramafic-mafic-e mantaqe-ye Masouleh, ostan-e Gilan, [Petrology of ultramafic-mafic rocks of Masouleh region, Gilan province], Pazhuhesh-ha-ye danesh-e zamin [Earth Science Research] 7 (25): 108–191 (in Persian).
Kolář, J. (2005). A Stranger Next to Kuchak Khan, translated by Reza Mirchi. Tehran: Farzan Rooz Publishing and Research (a Persian Translation of: Kolář, J. (1936). Na vlnách revoluce v zemi věčných ohňů. Prague: Nákladem Československé grafické unie).
Mansouri Zaranji, S. (2017). barrasi-ye zamin shenasi-ye ekteshafi-ye andisha-ye felezi dar mantaqe-ye Masouleh, ostan-e Gilan [Exploratory geological study of metallic mineral indices in the Masuleh area, Gilan Province] (Unpublished M.Sc. thesis, Islamic Azad University, Ahar Branch) (in Persian).
Mirza Ebrahim, (1976). safarname-ye Mazandaran, Astarabad va Gilan [Travelogue of Mazandaran, Astarabad and Gilan], edited and introduced by M. Golzari. Tehran: Iranian Culture Foundation Publications (in Persian)
Monteith, C. W. (1833). Journal of a Tour through Azerbidjan and the Shores of the Caspian, Journal of the Royal Geographical Society 3: 1–59. doi:10.2307/1797594
Moqri, A. A. (2007). gozaresh-e barrasi va gamanezani dar Kohne Masouleh [Report of investigation and soundings at Kohneh Masouleh]. In Masouleh Historical town Cultural Heritage and Tourism Base (Ed.) Ketab-e Masouleh 1 (pp. 98–112). Rasht: Farhang Ilia (in Persian)
Mozaeni, M. & Bahrampour, A. (2017). Masouleh, park-ha-ye tamasha [Masouleh, sighting Parks]. In Talebi, F. & Pourali, M. (Eds.), Ketab-e Masouleh 2 (pp. 11–24). Rasht: Farhang Ilia (in Persian)
Navaiyan, M. (2012). felezkari-ye ahan dar Masouleh [Iron Metalworking in Masouleh]. In Hamrang, B. (Ed.) Gamanehzani be manzur-e layenegari-ye shahr-e tarikhi-ye Masouleh [Archaeological soundings for the Stratigraphy of the Historical Town of Masouleh] (pp. 198–226). Rasht: General Directorate of Cultural Heritage, Handicrafts and Tourism of Gilan & Masouleh Historical Town Cultural Heritage Base (in Persian)
Olearius, A. (1669). The voyages and travels of the ambassadors sent by Frederick, Duke of Holstein, to the great Duke of Muscovy and the King of Persia. faithfully renred into English by J. Davies, the second edition corrected. London: Printed for John Starkey, and Thomas Basset, at the Mitre near Temple-Barr, and at the George near St. Dunstans Church in Fleet-Street.
Parcero-Oubiña, C., Criado-Boado, F. & Barreiro, D. (2020). Landscape Archaeology. In Smith, C. (Ed.) Encyclopedia of Global Archaeology (pp. 4379–4388). New York: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-30018-0_264
Peyab Consulting Engineers (2002). Pay-jouei va potansiyel-yabi-ye kansarha-ye felezi-ye Masouleh [Exploration and mineral potential assessment of metallic deposits in the Masuleh area]. (Unpublished technical report, Organization of Industry, Mine and Trade of Gilan Province, Rasht) (in Persian).
Pourali, M. (2016). sarshomari-ye Masouleh [Masouleh census]. Masouleh Heritage Center Office Archive (unpublished report).
Pigott, V. C. (1984). ĀHAN, Encyclopædia Iranica I/6, 624–633; Retrieved June 10, 2025, from: https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ahan-iron/
Pigott, V. C. (1999). A heartland of metallurgy: Neolithic/Chalcolithic metallurgical origins on the Iranian Plateau. In: Hauptmann, A., Pernicka, E., Rehren, T., & Yalçın, Ü. (Eds.) The beginnings of metallurgy. Proceedings of the International Conference “The Beginnings of Metallurgy” (Bochum 1995) (pp. 107–120). Bochum: Deutsches Bergbau-Museum Bochum (Der Anschnitt Beiheft 9).
Rabino, H. L. (1917). Les provinces caspiennes de la Perse: Le Guîlân. Paris: Ernest Leroux.
Robertson, J. (1840). An Account of the Iron Mines of Caradogh, near Tabreez in Persia, and of the Method there practised of producing Malleable-Iron by a single process directly from the Ore. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 14(2), 699–707. doi:10.1017/S0080456800021785
Sharafi Masouleh, F. (2016). ahan va naqsh-e an dar 8 qarne gozashte-ye Masouleh [Iron and its role in the past 8 centuries of Masouleh], Ruzname-ye Masouleh [Masouleh Newspaper] Special Issue 1 (July 10), 3–4 (in Persian).
Tabrizi, M. M. S. (1960). Ma’dan-nameh; A list of Iranian mines from 1240 to 1270, corrected by A. Parvaresh. Tehran: Library documents of the Geological and Mineral Exploration Organization of the country (in Persian)
UNESCO (2007). Masouleh Historical Town. Tentative Lists, UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved October 3, 2025, from https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5204/
Wagner, D. B. (1993). Iron and steel in ancient China. Leiden: E. J. Brill. doi:10.1163/9789004484115
Wulff, H. E. (1966). The Traditional Crafts of Persia: Their Development, Technology, and Influence on Eastern and Western Civilizations. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
How to Cite
Vahdati, A. A., Pourali, M., & Alitalesh, B. (2026). Masuleh and its Cultural Landscape: The Role of Iron Mining and Iron Industries in Its Socioeconomic Development. Historical Metallurgy, 55(3), 158-173. https://doi.org/10.54841/hm.680
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